An Era of Democracy, Reform and Imperialism and Transformations Around the Globe AP Unit #12 – Chapters 26 & 29
Suffrage The right to vote; Suffrage was a goal of the middle and lower-classes in Western Europe and the United States during the mid-19 th century and became the key goal of the worldwide Women’s Rights Movement of the late-19 th and early 20 th centuries. In 1800 women were mainly defined by their family and household roles. The vast majority of women throughout Europe and the United States had no legal identity apart from their husbands. Married women could not be a party in a lawsuit, could not sit on a jury, could not hold property in their own names, and could not write a will. Women in the early 19 th century remained legally inferior and economically dependent on men. In the course of the 19 th century and during the Second Industrial Revolution, women struggled to change their status. During much of the 19 th century, working-class groups maintained the belief that women should remain at home to bear and nurture children and should not be allowed in the industrial workforce. The Second Industrial Revolution, however, opened the door to new jobs for women. There were not enough men to fill the relatively low-paid, white-collar jobs being created, so employers began to hire women. Both industrial plants and retail shops needed clerks, typists, secretaries, file clerks, and salesclerks. The expansion of government services created some job opportunities for women. They could be secretaries and telephone operators, and also took jobs in education, health, and social services. While some middle-class women held these jobs, they were mainly filled by the working class who aspired to a better quality of life. Many people in the 19 th century believed that men were responsible to work outside the home while women should care for the family. During the 1800 s, marriage remained the only honorable and available career for most women. The number of children born to the average woman began to decline – the most significant development in the modern family. This decline was tied to improved economic conditions, as well as to increased use of birth control. In 1882 Europe’s first birth control clinic opened in Amsterdam. Closure Question #1: Explain why the birthrate declined during the 1800 s. (At least 1 sentence)
Women’s Suffrage Movement
Chartist Movement A popular movement among workers and other groups who were not permitted to vote in Great Britain in the early 19 th century. Leaders of the movement presented the demands to British Parliament first in 1838, though Parliament did not grant working-class urban men the right to vote until 1867. By the early 1900 s most adult males in Britain had the right to vote. The People’s Charter called for suffrage for all men and annual Parliamentary elections. It also proposed to reform Parliament in other ways. In Britain at the time, eligible men voted openly. Since their vote was not secret, they could feel pressure to vote in a certain way. Members of Parliament had to own land received no salary, so they needed to be wealthy. The Chartists wanted to make Parliament responsive to the lower classes. To do this, they demanded a secret ballot, an end to property requirements for serving in Parliament, and pay for members of Parliament rejected the Chartists’ demands. However, their protests convinced many people that the workers had valid complaints. Over the years, workers continued to press for political reform, and Parliament responded. It gave the vote to working-class men in 1867 and to male rural workers in 1884. After 1884, most males in Britain had the right to vote. By the early 1900 s, all the demands of the Chartists, except for annual elections, became law.
Queen Victoria Ruler of England from 1837 to 1901; Victoria’s sense of duty and moral respectability demonstrated the attitude of the British during her rule, which came to be known as the Victorian Age. The figure who presided over all this historic change was Queen Victoria came to the throne in 1837 at the age of 18. She was queen for nearly 64 years. During the Victorian Age, the British Empire reached the height of its wealth and power. Victoria was popular with her subjects, and she performed her duties capably. However, she was forced to accept a less powerful role for the monarchy. The kings who preceded Victoria in the 1700 s and 1800 s had exercised great influence over Parliament. The spread of democracy in the 1800 s shifted political power almost completely to Parliament, and especially to the elected House of Commons. Now the government was completely run by the prime minister and the cabinet. About two years after her coronation, Queen Victoria fell in love with her cousin Albert, a German prince. She proposed to him and they were married in 1840. Together they had nine children. Prince Albert established a tone of politeness and correct behavior at court, and the royal couple presented a picture of loving family life that became a British ideal. After Albert died in 1861, the queen wore black silk for the rest of her life in mourning. She once said of Albert, “Without him everything loses its interest. ”
Third Republic Government established by the French National Assembly in 1875. The Third Republic ruled France until World War II, but with a dozen political parties competing for power France remained divided. In 1890, several industrial countries had universal male suffrage (the right for all men to vote. ) No country, however, allowed women to vote. As more men gained suffrage, more women demanded the same. During the 1800 s, women in both Great Britain and the United States worked to gain the right to vote. British women organized reform societies and protested unfair laws and customs. AS women became more vocal, however, resistance to their demands grew. Many people, both men and women, thought that woman suffrage was too radical a break with tradition. Some claimed that women lacked the ability to take part in politics. After decades of peaceful efforts to win the right to vote, some women took more drastic steps. In Britain, Emmeline Pankhurst formed the Women’s Social and Political Union (WSPU) in 1903. The WSPU became the most militant organization for women’s rights. Its goal was to draw attention to the cause of woman suffrage. Emmeline Pankhurst, her daughters, Christabel and Sylvia, and other WSPY members were arrested and imprisoned many times. When they were jailed, the Pankhursts led hunger strikes to keep their cause in the public eye. British officials force-fed Sylvia and other activists to keep them alive. Though the woman suffrage movement gained attention between 1880 and 1914, its successes were gradual. Women did not gain the right to vote in national elections in Great Britain and the United States until after World War I. Closure Question #2: Why was the road to democracy more difficult for France than for England?
Dreyfus Affair / Anti-Semitism – Prejudice against Jews; Anti-Semitism has played a prominent role in European society since the fall of the Roman Empire, with many European nations preventing Jews from owning land or participating in European politics. Dreyfus Affair – Controversy within France surrounding Captain Alfred Dreyfus, one of the few Jewish officers in the French army. In 1894, Dreyfus was accused of selling military secrets to Germany, found guilty and sentenced to life in prison on what was later found to be false evidence presented by other army officers. The Dreyfus Affair divided France, with many members of society arguing that Dreyfus’ case ought not to be reopened even when information proving that he had been framed was brought to light. Public opinion was sharply divided over the scandal. Many army leaders, nationalists, leaders in the clergy, and anti-Jewish groups refused to let the case be reopened. They feared sudden action would cast doubt on the honor of the army. Dreyfus’ defenders insisted that justice was more important. In 1898, the writer Emile Zola published an open letter titled J’accuse! (I accuse!) in a popular French newspaper. In the letter, Zola denounced the army for covering up a scandal. Zola was sentenced to a year in prison for his views, but his letter gave strength to Dreyfus’ cause. Eventually, the French government declared his innocence. Closure Question #3: What was the Dreyfus Affair? Summarize the event in your own words.
Zionism Jewish national movement begun in the late 1800 s; Zionists immigrated to Jerusalem in Palestine in hopes of regaining control of the traditional Jewish homeland. Anti-Semitism, or hostility toward and discrimination against Jews, was not new to Europe. Since the Middle Ages, the Jews had been falsely portrayed by Christians as the murders of Jesus Christ and subjected to mob violence. Their rights had been restricted. They had been physically separated from Christians by being required to live in areas of cities known as ghettos. By the 1830 s, the lives of many Jews had improved. They had legal equality in many European countries. They became bankers, lawyers, scientists, and scholars and were absorbed into the national culture. Old prejudices were still very much alive, though, and anti-Semitism grew stronger in the late 1800 s. The intensity of anti-Semitism was evident from the Dreyfus affair in France. In 1894, a military court found Dreyfus, a captain in the French general staff, guilty of selling army secrets. During the trial, angry right-wing mobs yelled anti-Semitic sayings such as “Death to the Jews. ” After the trial evidence emerged that proved Dreyfus innocent. A wave of public outcry finally forced the government to pardon Dreyfus in 1899. The Dreyfus case showed the strength of anti-Semitism in France and other parts of Western Europe. However, persecution of Jews was even more severe in Eastern Europe. Russian officials permitted pogroms, organized campaigns of violence against Jews. From the late 1880 s on, thousands of Jews fled Eastern Europe. Many headed for the United States. For many Jews, the long history of exile and persecution convinced the to work for a homeland in Palestine. In the 1890 s, a movement known as Zionism developed to pursue this goal. Its leader was Theodor Herzl, a writer in Vienna. It took many years, however, before the state of Israel was established.
Closure Assignment #1 Answer the following questions based on what you have learned from Chapter 26, Section 1: 1. Why was the road to democracy more difficult for France than for England? 2. What was the Dreyfus Affair? Summarize the event in your own words. 3. What was the connection between anti. Semitism and Zionism?
Dominion A nation which is self-governing in domestic (local) affairs but remains part of a larger empire. During the mid-1800 s Canada became a dominion, with its own national government though it continued to be a part of the British Empire. Canada was originally home to many Native American peoples. The first European country to colonize Canada was France. The earliest French colonists, in the 1600 s and 1700 s, had included many fur trappers and missionaries. They tended to live among the Native Americans. Some French intermarried with Native Americans. Great Britain took possession of the country in 1763 after it defeated France in the French and Indian War. The French who remained lived mostly in the lower St. Lawrence Valley. Many Englishspeaking colonists arrived in Canada after it came under British rule. Some came from Great Britain, and others were Americans who had stayed loyal to Britain after the American Revolution. They settled separately from the French along the Atlantic seaboard and the Great Lakes. Religious and cultural differences between the mostly Roman Catholic French and the mainly Protestant English-speaking colonists caused conflict in Canada. Both groups pressed Britain for a greater voice in governing their own affairs. In 1791 the British Parliament tried to resolve both issues by creating two new Canadian provinces. Upper Canada (now Ontario) had an English-speaking majority. Lower Canada (now Quebec) had a Frenchspeaking majority. Each province had its own elected assembly. Closure Question #1: Why did Britain create Upper Canada and Lower Canada, and who lived in each colony?
Maori / Aborigines Maori – Polynesian people who settled in New Zealand around 800 A. D. and developed a culture based on farming, hunting, and fishing. Aborigines – Native peoples of Australia. Aborigines are the longest ongoing culture in the world and live as nomads, fishing, hunting and gathering food. The British sea captain James Cook claimed New Zealand in 1769 and part of Australia in 1770 for Great Britain. Both lands were already inhabited; however, when Cook reached Australia he considered it to be void of human life. Britain began colonizing Australia in 1788 with convicted criminals. The prisons in England were severely overcrowded. To solve this problem, the British government established a penal colony in Australia. A penal colony was a place where convicts were sent to serve their sentences. Many European nations used penal colonies as a way to prevent overcrowding of prisons. After their release, the newly freed prisoners could buy land settle. Closure Question #2: A) What was unusual about the first European settlers in Australia? B) Why do you think that Great Britain chose to send these settlers to Australia?
Home Rule A goal of many Irish citizens to gain local control over internal matters while remaining a part of the British Empire. Great Britain, fearful that British Protestants living in Ireland might become targets of the Irish Catholic majority, refused to allow the establishment of a democratic self-government in Ireland prior to World War One. English expansion into Ireland had begun in the 1100 s, when the pope granted control of Ireland to the English king. English knights invaded Ireland, and many settled there to form a new aristocracy. The Irish, who had their own ancestry, culture, and language, bitterly resented the English presence. Laws imposed by the English in the 1500 s and 1600 s limited the rights of Catholics and favored the Protestant religion and the English language. Over the years, the British government was determined to maintain its control over Ireland. It formally joined Ireland to Britain in 1801. Though a setback for Irish nationalism, this move gave Ireland representation in the British Parliament. Irish leader Daniel O’Connell persuaded Parliament to pass the Catholic Emancipation Act in 1829. This law restored many rights to Catholics. In the 1840 s, Ireland experienced one of the worst famines of modern history. For many years, Irish peasants had depended on potatoes as virtually their sole source of food. From 1845 to 1848, a plant fungus ruined nearly all of Ireland’s potato crop. Out of a population of 8 million, about a million died from starvation and disease over the next few years. During the famine years, about a million and a half people fled from Ireland. Most went to the United States; others went to Britain, Canada, and Australia. At home, in Ireland, the British government enforced the demands of the English landowners that the Irish peasants pay their rent. Many Irish lost their land fell hopelessly in debt, while large landowners profited from higher food prices. Closure Question #3: How was Britain’s policy toward Canada in the 1700 s similar to its policy toward Ireland in the 1900 s?
Irish Republican Army Unofficial military force seeking independence for Ireland. Beginning in the middle of World War I, the IRA staged a series of attacks against British officials in Ireland. The attacks sparked a war between the nationalists and the British government. This conflict influenced British Parliament to divide Ireland grant home rule to Irish Catholic southern Ireland. One reason for Britain’s opposition to home rule was concern for Ireland’s Protestants. They feared being a minority in a country dominated by Catholics. Most Protestants lived in the northern part of Ireland, known as Ulster. Finally, in 1914, Parliament enacted a home rule bill for southern Ireland. Just one month before the plan was to take effect, World War I broke out in Europe. Irish home rule was put on hold. Frustrated over the delay in gaining independence, a small group of Irish nationalists rebelled in Dublin during Easter week, 1916. British troops put down the Easter Rising and executed its leaders. Their fate, however, aroused wider popular support for the nationalist movement. After World War I, the Irish nationalists won a victory in the elections for the British Parliament. To protest delays in home rule, the nationalist members decided not to attend Parliament. Instead, they formed an underground Irish government and declared themselves independent. In 1921, Britain divided Ireland granted home rule to southern Ireland. Ulster, or Northern Ireland, remained a part of Great Britain. The south became a dominion called the Irish Free State. However, many Irish nationalists, led by Eamon De Valera, continued to seek total independence from Britain. In 1949, the Irish Free State declared itself the independent Republic of Ireland. Closure Question #3: How was Britain’s policy toward Canada in the 1700 s similar to its policy toward Ireland in the 1900 s?
Closure Assignment #2 Answer the following questions based on what you have learned from Chapter 26, Section 2: 1. Why did Britain create Upper Canada and Lower Canada, and who lived in each colony? 2. A) What was unusual about the first European settlers in Australia? B) Why do you think that Great Britain chose to send these settlers to Australia? 3. How was Britain’s policy toward Canada in the 1700 s similar to its policy toward Ireland in the 1900 s?
Manifest Destiny Term used to describe the belief that God wanted the United States to own all of North America. Expansionists strongly supported the idea of Manifest Destiny, envisioning the expansion of liberty for white Americans. This expansion would come at the expense of Indians and Mexicans. Expansionists argued that God had created Native Americans and Mexicans as inferiors to White Americans, and that they did not deserve to keep lands that were badly needed for American settlement. In addition, many Southerners hoped to add more slaves states in the west to strengthen their political position in Congress. “The American claim is by the right of our manifest destiny to overspread and possess the whole of the continent which Providence has given us for the development of the great experiment of liberty and… self-government entrusted to us. ” –John L. Sullivan, New York Morning News, December 27, 1845 Closure Question #1: Who might have agreed with the idea of Manifest Destiny? Who might have disagreed? Explain your answers.
Abraham Lincoln 1811 -1865 Illinois Republican (Political party established to end slavery) and President from 1861 to 1865. The election of Lincoln directly led the slave-owning southern states to choose to secede, leading to the American Civil War. Raised in rural poverty and largely self-taught, Lincoln began his political career at age 25, when he was elected to the Illinois State Legislature as a Whig. By 1836, Lincoln was admitted to the Illinois bar as an attorney and practiced law in Springfield. There he gained a reputation for integrity and directness and was given the title “Honest Abe”. Lincoln seemed to be opposed to slavery, but his political life was marked by a desire to steer a middle course. Lincoln served one term in the House of Representatives in the 1840’s but gained national fame for his opposition to the Kansas-Nebraska Act which was promoted by his rival politician, Stephen Douglas. Closure Question #2: How did Abraham Lincoln’s life reflect the basis of American democracy?
Secede / U. S. Civil War Secede – “To withdraw”, in 1861 several southern states in the U. S. A. seceded from the union following the election of Abraham Lincoln, a Republican president who opposed slavery. U. S. Civil War – (1861 -1865) Following southern secession, Lincoln ordered the army of the United States to bring the rebel states back into the Union. More than 600, 000 American men lost their lives in the conflict. Though the South had superior military leadership, the North had a larger population, better transportation, greater resources, and more factories. As a result, the North emerged victorious and the Union was restored. By the mid-19 th century, slavery had become a threat to American unity. Four million enslaved African Americans were in the South by 1860, compared with one million in 1800. The South’s economy was based on growing cotton on plantations, chiefly by slave labor. The cotton economy and plantation-based slavery were closely related. The disagreement over slavery fueled a debate about the rights of the individual states against those of the federal government. Southern politicians argued that the states had freely joined the Union, and so they could freely leave. Most Northerners felt that the Constitution had established the Union once and for all. Closure Question #3: What were the relative resources of the North and South in the U. S. Civil War?
Emancipation Proclamation Formally announced on 9/22/1862, President Abraham Lincoln issued the military order proclaiming that all enslaves people in the Confederate states would be considered free by the United States on 1/1/1863. The Proclamation did not apply to slaves in the loyal border states, nor did it truly give freedom to any slave in the Confederacy. It did give the Union army the authority to free any slave it came in contact with, but the slaves themselves had to escape from their masters to reach the army. Lincoln hoped that the order might convince some southern states to surrender before the January 1 st deadline. The 54 th Massachusetts Regiment was the first all African American unit in United States military history; by the war’s end more than 180, 000 African American volunteers had served in the Union military. The Confederacy considered drafting slaves and free blacks in 1863 and 1864, but most southerners opposed the enlistment of African Americans. In the aftermath of the war, the U. S. Congress passed the Thirteenth Amendment to the Constitution, which abolished slavery in the United States. The Fourteenth and Fifteenth Amendments extended the rights of citizenship to all Americans and guaranteed former slaves the right to vote. The need for mass production and distribution of goods during the Civil War speeded industrialization. After the war, the United States experienced industrial expansion unmatched in history. By 1914, it was a leading industrial power.
Segregation Forced separation of individuals according to their race. In the aftermath of the Civil War all of the states which had seceded, and many states which had not, passed laws mandating that African Americans use separate public facilities than other citizens. Mandated by Reconstruction state constitutions, public schools grew slowly, drawing in only about half of southern children by the end of the 1870 s. Establishing a new school was expensive, especially since southerners chose to establish segregated schools. Still, the establishment of a public school system in the south was a major achievement of the Reconstruction Era. From 1865 to 1877, Union troops occupied the South and enforced the constitutional protections. This period is called Reconstruction. After federal troops left the South, white Southerners passed laws that limited African Americans’ rights and made it difficult for them to vote. Such laws also encouraged segregation, or separation, of blacks and whites in the South. African Americans continued to face discrimination in the North as well.
Closure Assignment #3 Answer the following questions based on what you have learned from Chapter 26, Section 3: 1. Who might have agreed with the idea of Manifest Destiny? Who might have disagreed? Explain your answers. 2. How did Abraham Lincoln’s life reflect the basis of American democracy? 3. What were the relative resources of the North and South in the U. S. Civil War?
Assembly Line – An efficient manufacturing method pioneered by American Henry Ford in 1913; Assembly Line production places a product on a conveyor belt and has individuals at various stations along the belt responsible to attach one specific part. Mass Production is the business practice of producing large quantities of identical products which can be made quickly and cheaply. By the 1880 s, streetcars and subways powered by electricity had appeared in major European cities. Electricity transformed the factory as well. Conveyor belts, cranes, and machines could all be powered by electricity. With electric lights, factories could remain open 24 hours a day. The development of the internal-combustion engine, fired by oil and gasoline, provided a new source of power in transportation. This engine gave rise to ocean liners with oil-fired engines, as well as to the airplane and the automobile. In 1903 Orville and Wilbur Wright made the first flight in a fixed-wing plane at Kitty Hawk, North Carolina. In 1919 the first regular passenger air service was established. Industrial production grew at a rapid pace because of greatly increased sales of manufactured goods. Europeans could afford to buy more consumer products for several reasons. Wages for workers increased after 1870. In addition, prices for manufactured goods were lower because of reduced transportation costs. One of the biggest reasons for more efficient production was the assembly line. In the cities, the first department stores began to sell a new range of consumer goods. These goods – clocks, bicycles, electric lights, and typewriters, for example – were made possible by the steel and electrical industries. Closure Question #1: What effects did the assembly line have on production costs?
Assembly Line
Charles Darwin / Theory of Evolution Charles Darwin – British biologist who, in 1859, published On the Origin of Species, teaching his Theory of Evolution, i. e. that each species, or kind, of plant and animal had evolved over a long period of time from earlier, simpler forms of life. Natural Selection – Part of Darwin’s Theory of Evolution; Darwin believed that all organisms struggle for existence and that, in order to survive, they change to adapt to their environment. Those that don’t adapt become extinct. According to Darwin, those organisms that are naturally selected for survival (“survival of the fittest”) reproduce and thrive. The unfit do not survive. The fit that survive pass on the variations that enabled them to survive until, according to Darwin, a new separate species emerges. In The Descent of Man, published in 1871, Darwin argued that human beings had animal origins and were not an exception to the rule governing other species. Darwin’s ideas raised a storm of controversy. Some people did not take his ideas seriously. Other people objected that Darwin’s theory made human beings ordinary products of nature rather than unique creations of God. Others were bothered by his idea of life as a mere struggle for survival. “Is there a place in Darwinism for moral values? ” they asked. Some believers felt Darwin had not acknowledged God’s role in creation. Some detractors scorned Darwin and depicted him unfavorably in cartoons. Gradually, however, many scientists and other intellectuals came to accept Darwin’s theory. His theory changed thinking in countless fields from biology to anthropology. Closure Question #2: Besides competing for food, what are some of the other conditions to which species must adapt? Provide at least 3.
Radioactivity Energy released by the elements radium and polonium. Marie and Pierre Curie, a French husband wife team, discovered the two elements, earning the Nobel Prize for physics in 1903. Throughout much of the 1800 s, Westerners believed in a mechanical conception of the universe that was based on the ideas of Isaac Newton. In this perspective, the universe was viewed as a giant machine. Time, space, and matter were objective realities existing independently of those observing them. Matter was thought to be made of solid material bodies called atoms. These views were seriously questioned at the end of the 19 th century. The French scientist Marie Curie discovered that an element called radium gave off energy, or radiation, that apparently came from within the atom itself. Atoms were not simply hard material bodies but small, active worlds. In 1803, the British chemist John Dalton theorized that all matter is made of tiny particles called atoms. Dalton showed that elements contain only one kind of atom, which as a specific weight. Compounds, on the other hand, contain more than one kind of atom. In 1869, Dmitri Mendeleev, a Russian chemist, organized a chart on which all the known elements were arranged in order of weight, from lightest to heaviest. He left gaps where he predicted that new elements would be discovered. Later, his predictions proved correct. Mendeleev’s chart, the Periodic Table, is still used today. Physicists around 1900 continued to unravel the secrets of the atom. Earlier scientists believed that he atom was the smallest particle that existed. A British physicist named Ernest Rutherford suggested that atoms were made up of yet smaller particles. Each atom, he said, had a nucleus surrounded by one or more particles called electrons. Soon other physicists such as Max Planck, Neils Bohr, and Albert Einstein were studying the structure and energy of atoms.
Psychology The study of the human mind and behavior. Psychology developed as a unique social science in the late 19 th century thanks to the work of Russian physiologist Ivan Pavlov, who theorized that human actions were often unconscious reactions to experiences and could be changed by training, and Austrian doctor Sigmund Freud, who believed that unconscious forces, such as suppressed memories, desires, and impulses shape human behavior. Freud founded psychoanalysis as a therapy to deal with psychological conflicts. Sigmund Freud, a doctor from Vienna, proposed theories regarding the nature of the human mind. Freud’s ideas, like the new physics, added to the uncertainties of the age. His major theories were published in 1900 in The Interpretation of Dreams. According to Freud, human behavior was strongly determined by past experiences and internal forces of which people were largely unaware. Repression of such experiences began in childhood, so he devised a method – known as psychoanalysis – by which a therapist and patient could probe deeply into the patient’s memory. In this way, they could retrace the chain of repressed thoughts all the way back to their childhood origins. If the patient’s conscious mind could be made aware of the unconscious and its repressed contents, the patient could be healed. Rapid advances in science, psychology, and the arts caused people to question previous knowledge and created a culture of modernity. While scientists such as Marie Curie and Albert Einstein were reshaping people’s understanding of the external world, Sigmund Freud was shaping their perceptions of the internal world – the inner workings of the mind. Freud believed that the mind had both conscious and unconscious parts, and that the unconscious controls many human behaviors. Painful memories from childhood became rooted, or repressed, in the unconscious, leading to mental illness. To help the person heal, these memories must be brought to conscious awareness. Freud believed that memories buried in the unconscious emerge in disguised form in dreams. One way to gain access to repressed memories, then, is to interpret dreams.
Psychoanalysis
Mass Culture The appeal of art, writing, music, and other forms of entertainment to a larger audience. The rise of the middle-class which was sparked by the Industrial Revolution led to an increase in the amount of leisure time available to citizens worldwide. In the late 19 th century this leisure time was spent in music halls, at vaudeville performances, in movie theaters, and at sporting events. There were several causes for the rise of mass culture. Their effects changed life in Europe and North America. The demand for leisure activities resulted in a variety of new pursuits for people to enjoy. A popular leisure activity was a trip to the local music hall. On a typical evening, a music hall might offer a dozen or more different acts. It might feature singers, dancers, comedians, jugglers, magicians, and acrobats. In the United States, musical variety shows were called vaudeville. Vaudeville acts traveled from town to town, appearing at theaters. During the 1880 s, several inventors worked at trying to project moving images. One successful design came from France. Another came from Thomas Edison’s laboratory. The earliest motion pictures were black and white and lasted less than a minute. By the early 1900 s, filmmakers were producing the first feature films. Movies quickly became big business. By 1910, five million Americans attended some 10, 000 theaters each day. The European movie industry experienced similar growth. With time at their disposal, more people began to enjoy sports and outdoor activities. Spectator sports now became entertainment. In the United States, football and baseball soared in popularity. In Europe, the first professional soccer clubs formed and drew big crowds. Favorite English sports such as cricket spread to the British colonies in Australia, India, and South Africa. Closure Question #3: How is the mass culture that rose at the end of the 19 th century similar to mass culture today? How is it different? Explain your response.
Closure Assignment #4 Answer the following questions based on what you have learned from Chapter 26, Section 4: 1. What effects did the assembly line have on production costs? 2. Besides competing for food, what are some of the other conditions to which species must adapt? Provide at least 3. 3. How is the mass culture that rose at the end of the 19 th century similar to mass culture today? How is it different? Explain your response.
Imperialism The extension of a nation’s power over other lands. In the 19 th century , a new phase of Western expansion began. European nations began to view Asian and African societies as a source of industrial raw materials and a market for Western manufactured goods. In the 1880 s, European states began an intense scramble for overseas territory. Europeans had set up colonies and trading posts in North America, South America, and Africa by the 16 th century. However, the imperialism of the 19 th century, called the “new imperialism” by some, was different. Earlier, European states had been content, especially in Africa and Asia, to set up a few trading posts where they could carry on trade and perhaps some missionary activity. Now they sought nothing less than direct control over vast territories. Why did Westerners begin to increase their search for colonies after 1880? There was a strong economic motive. Capitalist states in the West were looking for both markets and raw materials such as rubber, oil, and tin for their industries. The issue was not simply an economic one, however. European nation-states were involved in heated rivalries. They acquired colonies abroad in order to gain an advantage over their rivals. Colonies were also a source of national prestige. To some people, in fact, a nation could not be great without colonies. In addition, imperialism was tied to Social Darwinism and racism. Social Darwinists believed that in the struggle between nations, the fit are victorious. Racism is the belief that race determines traits and capabilities. Racists erroneously believe that particular races are superior or inferior. Some Europeans took a more religious and humanitarian approach to imperialism. They believed Europeans had a moral responsibility to civilize primitive people. They called this responsibility the “white man’s burden. ” To some, this meant bringing the Christian message to the “heathen masses. ” To others, it meant bringing the benefits of Western democracy and capitalism to these societies.
David Livingstone / Henry Stanley David Livingstone – British doctor, Christian missionary, and explorer who trekked through uncharted regions of the interior of Africa. Henry Stanley – American journalist who traveled to Africa to find Livingstone and, following Livingstone’s death in 1873, continued exploration and encouraged European settlement of Central African territories were soon added to the list of European colonies. Explorers aroused popular interest in the dense tropical jungles of Central Africa. Livingstone was one such explorer. He arrived in Africa in 1841 as a 27 -year-old medical missionary. During the 30 years he spent in Africa, Livingstone trekked through uncharted regions. He sometimes traveled by canoe, but mostly Livingstone walked and spent much of his time exploring the interior of the continent. During his travels through Africa, Livingstone made detailed notes of his discoveries. He sent this information back to London whenever he could. The maps of Africa were often redrawn based on Livingstone’s reports. A major goal of Livingstone’s explorations was to find a navigable river that would open Central Africa to European commerce and Christianity. When Livingstone disappeared for awhile, an American newspaper, the New York Herald, hired a young journalist, Henry Stanley, to find the explorer. Stanley did find him on the eastern shore of Lake Tanganyika. Overwhelmed by finding Livingstone alive if not well, Stanley greeted the explorer with these now famous words, “Dr. Livingstone, I presume? ” After Livingstone’s death in 1873, Stanley remained in Africa to carry on the great explorer’s work. Unlike Livingstone, however, Henry Stanley had a strong dislike of Africa. He once said, “I detest the land most heartily. ” In the 1870 s, Stanley explored the Congo River in Central Africa and sailed down it to the Atlantic Ocean. Soon, he was encouraging the British to send settlers to the Congo River basin. When Britain refused, Stanley turned to King Leopold II of Belgium. Leopold was the real driving force behind colonization of Central Africa. He rushed enthusiastically into the pursuit of an empire in Africa. “To open to civilization, ” he said, “the only part of our globe where it has not yet penetrated, to pierce the darkness which envelopes whole populations is a crusade, if I may so, a crusade worthy of this century of progress. ” Profit, however, was equally important to Leopold. In 1876 he hired Henry Stanley to set up Belgian settlements in the Congo. Leopold’s claim to the vast territories of the Congo aroused widespread concern among other European states. France, in particular, rushed to plant its flag in the hear of Africa. Leopold ended up with the territories around the Congo River. France occupied the areas farther north.
Racism / Social Darwinism Racism – The belief that race determines traits and capabilities and that particular races are superior or inferior. Social Darwinism – Theory that Darwin’s theory of natural selection can be applied to the interaction of individuals and nations. The strong people and nations were meant to rule the world, while the weak were meant to be dominated or become extinct. Several factors contributed to the Europeans’ conquest of Africa. One overwhelming advantage was the Europeans’ technological superiority. The Maxim gun, invented in 1884, was the world’s first automatic machine gun. European countries quickly acquired the Maxim, while the resisting Africans were forced to rely on outdated weapons. European countries also had the means to control their empire. The invention of the steam engine allowed Europeans to easily travel on rivers to establish bases of control deep in the African continent. Railroads, cables, and steamships allowed close communications within a colony and between the colony and its controlling nation. Even with superior arms and steam engines to transport them, another factor might have kept Europeans confined to the coast. They were highly susceptible to malaria, a disease carried by the dense swarms of mosquitoes in Africa’s interior. The perfection of the drug quinine in 1829 eventually protected Europeans from becoming infected with the disease. Factors within Africa also made the continent easier for Europeans to colonize. Africans’ huge variety of languages and cultures discouraged unity among them. Wars fought between ethnic groups over land, water, and trade rights also prevented a unified stand. Europeans soon learned to play rival groups against each other.
Closure Question #1: List the ways in which the French system of direct rule included Africans. (At least 2 answers) The French had colonies in North Africa. In 1870, after about 150, 000 French people had settled in the region of Algeria, the French government established control there. Two years later, France imposed a protectorate on neighboring Tunisia. In 1912 France established a protectorate over much of Morocco. Most European nations governed their African possessions through a form of direct rule. This was true in the French colonies. At the top was a French official, usually known as a governor-general. He was appointed from Paris and governed with the aid of bureaucracy in the capital city of the colony. The French ideal was to assimilate African subjects into French culture rather than preserve native traditions. Africans were eligible to run for office and even serve in the French National Assembly in Paris. A few were also appointed to high-powered positions in the colonial administration.
Berlin Conference Meeting of 14 European nations in 1884 and 1885 to lay down the rules for the division of Africa. The nations agreed that any European country could claim land in Africa by notifying other nations of its claims and showing it could control the area. The conference that European nations would not go to war with each other over African territory. By 1914, only Liberia and Ethiopia remained free from European control. When European countries began colonizing, many believed that Africans would soon be buying European goods in great quantities. They were wrong; few Africans bought European goods. However, European businesses still needed raw materials from Africa. The major source of great wealth in African proved to be the continent’s rich mineral resources. The Belgian Congo contained untold wealth in copper and tin. Even these riches seemed small compared with the gold and diamonds in South Africa. Businesses eventually developed cash-crop plantations to grow peanuts, palm oil, cocoa, and rubber. These products displaced the food crops grown by farmers to feed their families. The motives that drove colonization in Africa were also at work in other lands. Similar economic, political, and social forces accelerated the drive to take over land in all parts of the globe. The Industrial Revolution in particular provided European countries with a reason to add lands to their control. As European nations industrialized, they searched for new markets and raw materials to improve their economies.
Closure Question #2: What can you conclude from the fact that African delegates were not included in the Berlin Conference of 1884? (At least 1 sentence) By 1885, Britain and Germany had become the chief rivals in East Africa. Germany came late to the ranks of the imperialist powers. At first, the German chancellor Otto von Bismarck had downplayed the importance of colonies. As more and more Germans called for a German empire, however, Bismarck became a convert to colonialism. As he expressed it, “All this colonial business is a sham, but we need it for the elections. ” In addition to its West African holdings, Germany tried to develop colonies in East Africa. Most of East Africa had not yet been claimed by any other power. However, the British were also interested in the area because control of East Africa would connect the British Empire in Africa from South Africa to Egypt. Portugal and Belgium also claimed parts of East Africa. To settle conflict claims, the Berlin Conference met in 1884 and 1885. The conference officially recognized both British and German claims for territory in East Africa. Portugal received a clear claim on Mozambique. No African delegates, however, were present at this conference.
Shaka Zulu Chief of the Zulu tribe in southern Africa during the early 19 th century. Shaka used highly disciplined warriors and good military organization to create a large centralized state by 1816 which withstood attempts by the British to colonize their homeland. However, Shaka’s successors were unable to keep the kingdom together and, facing superior weaponry such as the Maxim Gun (the first automatic machine gun), the Zulus fell under British control by 1887. Nowhere in Africa did the European presence grow more rapidly than in the south. By 1865, the total white population of South Africa had risen to nearly 200, 000 people. The Boers, or Afrikaners – as the descendants of the original Dutch settlers were called – had occupied Cape Town and surrounding areas in South Africa since the 17 th century. During the Napoleonic Wars, however, the British seized these lands from the Dutch. Afterward, the British encouraged settlers to come to what they called Cape Colony. In the 1830 s, disgusted with British rule, the Boers moved from the coastal lands and headed northward on the Great Trek. Altogether one out of every five Dutch speaking South Africans joined the trek. Their parties eventually settled in the region between the Orange and Vaal Rivers and in the region north of the Vaal River. In these areas, the Boers formed two independent republics – the Orange Free State and the Transvaal (later called the South African Republic).
European Colonization in Africa
Boers / Boer War Boers – “Farmers”; Dutch settlers who gradually took Africans’ lands in South Africa during the 17 th and 18 th centuries. The Boers clashed with the British regarding land the practice of slavery, a practice which the Boers supported. Boer War – (1899 -1910) Conflict between the Boers and the British following the discovery of gold and diamonds in South Africa. The Boers launched commando raids and used guerrilla tactics against the British. The British countered by burning Boer farms and imprisoning women and children in disease-ridden concentration camps. Britain finally won the war and formed the Union of South Africa. The Boers believed that white superiority was ordained by God. They denied non-Europeans any place in their society other than as laborers or servants. As they settled the lands, the Boers put many of the indigenous peoples in these areas on reservations. The Boers had frequently battled the Zulu people. In the early 19 th century, the Zulu, under a talented ruler named Shaka, had carved out their own empire. Even after Shaka’s death, the Zulu remained powerful. Finally, in the late 1800 s, the British military became involved in conflicts with the Zulu & defeated them. In the 1880 s, British policy in South Africa was influenced by Cecil Rhodes had founded diamond and gold companies that had made him a fortune. He gained control of a territory north of the Transvaal, which he named Rhodesia after himself. Rhodes was a great champion of British expansion. He said once, “I think what God would like me to do is to paint as much of Africa British red as possible. ” One of Rhode’s goals was to create a series of British colonies “from Cape to Cairo” – all linked by a railroad.
Closure Question #3: Why do you think the Boers resisted British rule? (At least 1 sentence) Cecil Rhodes ambitions eventually led to his downfall in 1896. The British government forced him to resign as prime minister of Cape Colony after discovering that he planned to overthrow the Boer government of the South African Republic without his government’s approval. The British action was too late to avoid a war between the British and the Boers however. This war, called the Boer War, dragged on from 1899 to 1902. Fierce guerrilla resistance by the Boers angered the British. They responded by burning crops and herding about 120, 000 Boer women and children into detention camps, where lack of food caused some 20, 000 deaths. Eventually, the vastly larger British army won. A peace treaty was signed in 1902. In 1910 the British created an independent Union of South Africa, which combined the old Cape Colony and the Boer republics. The new state would be a self-governing nation within the British Empire. To appease the Boers, the British agreed that only whites, with a few propertied Africans, would vote.
Closure Assignment #5 Answer the following questions based on the information covered in Chapter 21, Section 2: 1. List the ways in which the French system of direct rule included Africans. (At least 2 answers) 2. What can you conclude from the fact that African delegates were not included in the Berlin Conference of 1884? (At least 1 sentence) 3. Why do you think the Boers resisted British rule? (At least 1 sentence)
Paternalism European policy towards African colonies which was based on the view that Africans were unable to handle the complex business of running a country. Europeans governed people in a parental way by providing for their needs but not giving them rights. To accomplish this, Europeans brought in their own bureaucrats and did not train local people in European methods of governing. The Imperialism of the 18 th and 19 th centuries was conducted differently from the explorations of the 15 th and 16 th centuries. In the earlier periods, imperial powers often did not penetrate far into the conquered areas in Asia and Africa. Nor did they always have a substantial influence on the lives of the people. During this new period of imperialism, the Europeans demanded more influence over the economic, political, and social lives of the people. They were determined to shape the economies of the lands to benefit European economies. They also wanted the people to adopt European customs. Each European nation had certain policies and goals for establishing colonies. To establish control of an area, Europeans used different techniques. Over time, four forms of colonial control emerged: colony, protectorate, sphere of influence, and economic imperialism. In practice, gaining control of an area might involve the use of several of these forms. Closure Question #1: How was the policy of paternalism like Social Darwinism?
Assimilation European imperial policy based on the idea that in time, the local populations in Africa would adopt the culture of their European or American rulers and become like them. To aid in this transition, all local schools, courts, and businesses were patterned after those of the ruling nation. In many cases, native Africans were obligated to abandon their native cultural practices and languages in order to gain greater acceptance and rights from their imperial rulers. Western powers governed their new colonial empires by either indirect or direct rule. Their chief goals were to exploit the natural resources of the lands and to open up markets for their own manufactured goods. Sometimes a colonial power could realize its goals by cooperating with local political elites. For example, the Dutch East India Company used indirect rule in the Dutch East Indies. This made access to the region’s natural resources easier. Indirect rule was cheaper because fewer officials had to be trained and it affected local culture less. However, indirect rule was not always possible. Some local elites resisted the foreign conquest. In these cases, the local elites were replaced with Western officials. Great Britain administered Burma directly through its colonial government in India. In Indochina, France used both systems. It imposed direct rule in southern Vietnam, but ruled indirectly through the emperor in northern Vietnam. To justify their conquests, Western powers spoke of bringing the blessings of Western civilization of their colonial subjects, including representative government. However, many Westerners came to fear the idea of native peoples (especially educated ones) being allowed political rights. Closure Question #2: Do you think Europeans could have conquered Africa if the Industrial Revolution had never occurred? Explain your answer.
Menelik II Emperor of Ethiopia in the late 19 th century; Under Menelik’s leadership Ethiopia became the only African nation that successfully resisted the Europeans. He successfully played Italians, French, and British against each other, all of whom were striving to bring Ethiopia into their spheres of influence. He built up a large arsenal of modern weapons purchased from France and Russia. In 1896, at the Battle of Adowa, Ethiopian forces successfully defeated the Italians and kept their nation independent. The unsuccessful resistance attempts included active military resistance and resistance through religious movements. Algeria’s almost 50 -year resistance to French rule was one outstanding example of active resistance. The resistance movement led by Samori Toure in West Africa against the French is another example. After modernizing his army, Toure fought the French for 16 years. Africans in German East Africa put their faith in spiritual defense. African villages resisted Germans’ insistence that they plant cotton, a cash crop for export, rather than attend to their own food crops. In 1905, the belief suddenly arose that a magic water sprinkled on their bodies would turn the Germans’ bullets into water. The uprising became known as the Maji rebellion. Over 20 different ethnic groups united to fight for their freedom. The fighters believed that their war had been ordained by God and that their ancestors would return to life and assist their struggle. Closure Question #3: Why would the French and Russians sell arms to Ethiopia?
Closure Assignment #6 Answer the following questions based on what you have learned from Chapter 27, Section 2: 1. How was the policy of paternalism like Social Darwinism? 2. Do you think Europeans could have conquered Africa if the Industrial Revolution had never occurred? Explain your answer. 3. Why would the French and Russians sell arms to Ethiopia?
Geopolitics An interest in or taking of land for its strategic location or products. Geopolitics played an important role in the fate of the Ottoman Empire. The Ottomans controlled access to the Mediterranean and the Atlantic sea trade. Discovery of oil in Persia around 1900 and in the Arabian Peninsula after World War I focused even more attention on the area. The declining Ottoman Empire had difficulties trying to fit into the modern world. However, the Ottomans made attempts to change before they finally were unable to hold back the European imperialist powers. When Suleyman I, the last great Ottoman sultan, died in 1566, he was followed by a succession of weak sultans. The palace government broke up into a number of quarreling, often corrupt factions. Weakening power brought other problems. Corruption and theft had caused financial losses. Coinage was devalued, causing inflation. Once the Ottoman Empire had embraced modern technologies, but now it fell further and further behind Europe. When Selim III came into power in 1789, he attempted to modernize the army. However, the old janissary corps resisted his efforts. Selim III was overthrown, and reform movements were temporarily abandoned. Meanwhile, nationalist feelings began to stir among the Ottoman’s subject peoples. IN 1830, Greece gained its independence, and Serbia gained self-rule. The Ottomans’ weakness was becoming apparent to European powers, who were expanding their territories. They began to look for ways to take the lands away from the Ottomans.
Crimean War Conflict between Russia and the Ottoman Empire during the mid-19 th century. Russia’s motivation to begin the war was to gain access to a warm-weather port on the Black Sea. Britain and France wanted to prevent the Russians from gaining control of Ottoman lands, so they entered the war on the side of the Ottoman Empire. The combined forces of the Ottoman Empire, Britain, and France defeated Russia. Though victorious, the war revealed the Ottomans’ military weakness, and the Ottomans continued to lose territory until their government was ended following World War I. The Crimean War was the first war in which women, led by Florence Nightingale, established their position as army nurses. It was also the first war to be covered by newspaper correspondents. Despite the help of Britain and France, the Ottoman Empire continued to lose lands. The Russians came to the aid of Slavic people in the Balkans who rebelled against the Ottomans. The Ottomans lost control of Romania, Montenegro, Cyprus, Bosnia, Herzegovina, and an area that became Bulgaria. The Ottomans lost land in Africa too. By the beginning of World War I, the Ottoman Empire was reduced in size and in deep decline.
Suez Canal A human-made waterway that cut through the Isthmus of Suez, connecting the Red Sea to the Mediterranean. It was built mainly with French money from private interest groups, using Egyptian labor. The Suez Canal opened in 1869 with a huge international celebration. However, efforts by Egypt’s leaders to modernize their country, such as irrigation projects and communications networks, were enormously expensive. In debt more than $450 million, Egypt accepted British occupation in 1882. Muhammad Ali was an officer of the Ottoman army who, in 1805, seized power and established Egypt as an independent nation. Before 1880, Europeans controlled little of the African continent directly. They were content to let African rulers and merchants represent European interests. Between 1880 and 1900, however, Great Britain, France, Germany, Belgium, Italy, Spain and Portugal, spurred by intense rivalries among themselves, placed virtually all of African under European rule. Egypt had been part of the Ottoman Empire, but as Ottoman rule declined, the Egyptians sought their independence. In 1805, an officer of the Ottoman army named Muhammad Ali seized power and established a separate Egyptian state. During the next 30 years, Muhammad Ali introduced a series of reforms to bring Egypt into the modern world. He modernized the army, set up a public school system, and helped create small industries that refined sugar, produced textiles and munitions, and built ships. Closure Question #1: Why did Great Britain want to control the Suez Canal?
Sepoys – Indian soldiers hired by the British East India Company to protect the company’s interests in India. Kanpur was the site of the massacre of 200 defenseless British women and children by Indian revolutionaries. This event, along with other atrocities, led the British government to directly control India in 1876. Over the course of the 18 th century, British power in India had increased while the power of the Mongol rulers had declined. The British government gave a trading company, the British East India Trading Company, power to become actively involved in India’s political and military affairs. To rule India, the British East India Company had its own soldiers and forts. It also hired Indian soldiers, known as sepoys, to protect the company’s interests in the region. In 1857 a growing Indian distrust of the British led to a revolt. The British call the revolt the Sepoy Mutiny. Indians call it the First War of Independence. Neutral observers label it the Great Rebellion. The major immediate cause of the revolt was a rumor that the troops’ new rifle cartridges were greased with cow and pig fat. The cow was sacred to Hindus. The pig was taboo to Muslims. To load a rifle at that time, soldiers had to bite off the end of the cartridge. To the sepoys, touching these greased cartridges to their lips would mean that they were polluted. A group of sepoys at an army post in Meerut, near Delhi, refused to load their rifles with the cartridges. The British charged them with mutiny, publicly humiliated them, and put them in prison. This treatment of their comrades enraged the sepoy troops in Meerut. They went on a rampage, killing 50 European men, women, and children. Soon other Indians joined the revolt, including Indian princes whose land the British had taken. Within a year, however, Indian troops loyal to the British and fresh British troops had crushed the rebellion. Although Indian troops fought bravely and outnumbered the British by about 230, 000 to 45, 000, they were not well organized. Rivalries between Hindus and Muslims kept the Indians from working together. Atrocities were terrible on both sides. At Kanpur, Indians massacred 200 defenseless women and children in a building known as the House of the Ladies. Recapturing Kanpur, the British took their revenge before executing the Indians.
Closure Question #2: Do you think the benefits of British rule to India outweighed its costs? Support your answer. (At least 1 sentence) The Indian people paid a high price for the peace and stability brought by British rule. Perhaps the greatest cost was economic. British entrepreneurs and a small number of Indians reaped financial benefits from British rule, but it brought hardships for millions of others in both the cities and the countryside. British manufactured goods destroyed local industries. British textiles put thousands of women out of work and severely damaged the Indian textile industry. In rural areas, the British sent zamindars to collect taxes. The British believed that using these local officials would make it easier to collect taxes from the peasants. However, the zamindars in India took advantage of their new authority. They increased taxes and forced the less fortunate peasants to become tenants or lose their land entirely. The British also encouraged many farmers to switch from growing food to growing cotton. As a result, food supplies could not keep up with the growing population. Between 1800 and 1900, 30 million Indians died of starvation. Finally, British rule was degrading, even for the newly educated upper classes who benefited the most from it.
“Jewel in the Crown” Term used by the British to describe India, which was considered the most valuable of all of Britain’s colonies. The Industrial Revolution had turned Britain into the world’s workshop, and India was a major supplier of raw materials for that workshop. Its 300 million people were also a large potential market for British made goods. British rule in India had several benefits for subjects. It brought order and stability to a society badly divided into many states with different political systems. It also led to a fairly honest, efficient government. Through the efforts of the British administrator and historian Lord Thomas Macaulay, a new school system was set up. The new system used the English language. The goal of the new school system was to train Indian children to serve in the government and army. The new system served only elite, upper-class Indians, however. 90% of the population remained uneducated and illiterate. Railraods, the telegraph, and a postal service were introduced to India shortly after they appeared in Great Britain. In 1853 the first trial run of a passenger train traveled the short distance from Bombay to Thane. By 1900, 25, 000 miles of railroads crisscrossed India. The British set up restrictions that prevented the Indian economy from operating on its own. British policies called for India to produce raw materials for British manufacturing and to buy British goods. In addition, Indian competition with British goods was prohibited. For example, India’s own handloom textile industry was almost put of business by imported British textiles. Cheap cloth from England flooded the Indian market and undercut local producers.
Sepoy Mutiny (1857 -1858) Violent uprising against British rule by the Sepoys. The revolt was sparked by a rumor that the cartridges for the rifles given to the Sepoys by the British were greased with beef and pork fat. Both Hindus, who consider the cow sacred, and Muslims, who do not eat pork, were outraged by the news. The Sepoys refused to use the cartridges and, as a result many were jailed by the British. Those that remained free responded by attacking the British, taking the city of Delhi. Finally, fresh British troops arrived and put down the uprising. The first Indian nationalists were upper-class and English educated. Many of them were from urban areas, such as Bombay (Mumbai), Madras (Chennai), and Calcutta (Kolkata). At first, many Indian nationalists preferred reform to revolution. However, the slow pace of reform convinced many that relying on British goodwill was futile. In 1885 a small group of Indians met in Bombay to form the Indian National Congress. The INC had difficulties because of religious differences. The INC sought independence for all Indians, regardless of class or religious background. However, many of its leaders were Hindu and reflected Hindu concerns. Later, Muslims called for the creation of a separate Muslim League. Such a league would represent the interests of the millions of Muslims in Indian society. The love-hate tension in India that arose from British domination led to a cultural awakening as well. The cultural revival began in the early 19 th century with the creation of a British college in Calcutta. A local publishing house was opened. It issued textbooks on a variety of subjects, including the sciences, Sanskrit, and Western literature. The publisher also printed grammars and dictionaries in various Indian languages. This revival soon spread to other regions of India. It led to a search for a new national identity and a modern literary expression. Indian novelists and poets began writing historical romances and epics. Some wrote in English, but most were uncomfortable with a borrowed colonial language. They preferred to use their own regional tongues.
Raj The direct rule of India by the British. Following the Sepoy Mutiny the British government determined that it needed to maintain a stronger presence in India, and in 1858 Queen Victoria was recognized as the Empress of India. As a result of the Sepoy Uprising, the British Parliament transferred the powers of the East India Company directly to the British government. In 1876 Queen Victoria took the title of Empress of India. The people of India were now her colonial subjects, and India became her “Jewel in the Crown. ” Although the rebellion failed, it helped to fuel Indian nationalism. The rebellion marked the first significant attempt by the people of South Asia to throw off British rule. Later, a new generation of Indian leaders would take up the cause. After the Sepoy Mutiny, the British government began to rule India directly. They appointed a British official known as a viceroy. A British civil service staff assisted the viceroy. This staff of about 3, 500 officials ruled almost 300 million people, the largest colonial population in the world. British rule involved both benefits and costs for Indians. British rule in India had several benefits for subjects. It brought order and stability to a society badly divided into many states with different political systems. It also led to a fairly honest, efficient government. Through the efforts of the British administrator and historian Lord Thomas Macaulay, a new school system was set up. The new system used the English language. The goal of the new school system was to train Indian children to serve in the government and army. The new system served only elite, upper-class Indians, however. 90% of the population remained uneducated and illiterate. Railraods, the telegraph, and a postal service were introduced to India shortly after they appeared in Great Britain. In 1853 the first trial run of a passenger train traveled the short distance from Bombay to Thane. By 1900, 25, 000 miles of railroads crisscrossed India. Closure Question #3: Many British lived in India for decades. Do you think living in India would have changed British attitudes toward Indians? Explain. (At least 1 sentence)
Closure Assignment #7 Answer the following questions based on what you have learned from Chapter 27, Sections 3 and 4: 1. Why did Great Britain want to control the Suez Canal? 2. Do you think the benefits of British rule to India outweighed its costs? Support your answer. (At least 1 sentence) 3. Many British lived in India for decades. Do you think living in India would have changed British attitudes toward Indians? Explain. (At least 1 sentence)
Pacific Rim The countries that border the Pacific Ocean; Western nations desired the Pacific Rim lands for their strategic location along the sea route to China and for their tropical agriculture, minerals, and oil. The new imperialism of the late 19 th century was evident in Southeast Asia. In 1800, the Europeans ruled only two societies in this area: the Spanish Philippines and the Dutch East Indies. By 1900, virtually the entire area was under Western rule. The process began with Great Britain. In 1819 Great Britain sent Sir Thomas Stamford Raffles to found a new colony on a small island at the tip of the Malay Peninsula. Called Singapore (“city of the lion”), in the new age of steamships, it soon became a major stopping point for traffic going to or from China. Raffles was proud of his new city. He wrote about Singapore to a friend in England: “Here all is life and activity; and it would be difficult to name a place on the face of the globe with brighter prospects. ” During the next few decades, the British advance into Southeast Asia continued. Next to fall was the kingdom of Burma (modern Myanmar). Britain wanted control of Burma in order to protect its possessions in India. It also sought a land route through Burma into south China. Although the difficult terrain along the frontier between Burma and China caused this effort to fail. British activities in Burma led to the collapse of the Burmese monarchy. Many subject peoples in Southeast Asia resented being governed by Western powers. At first, resistance came from the existing ruling class. In Burma, for example, the monarch himself fought Western domination. By contrast, in Vietnam, after the emperor had agreed to French control of his country, a number of government officials set up an organization called Can Vuong (“Save the King”). They fought against the French without the emperor’s help. Sometimes, resistance to Western control took the form of peasant revolts. Under colonial rule, peasants were often driven off the land to make way for plantation agriculture. Angry peasants then vented their anger at the foreign invaders. For example, in Burma, in 1930 the Buddhist monk Saya San led a peasant uprising against the British colonial regime many years after the regime had completed its takeover.
King Mongkut Ruler of Siam (Modern-Day Thailand) who promoted Western learning and maintained friendly relations with European powers in order to maintain the independence of their nation. Under his leadership, Siam was The only free state in Southeast Asia that remained following the conquests of England France in the late 19 th century. France, which had some missionaries operating in Vietnam, nervously watched the British advance into Burma. The local Vietnamese authorities, who viewed Christianity as a threat to Confucian doctrine, persecuted the French missionaries. However, Vietnam failed to stop the Christian missionaries. Vietnamese internal rivalries divided the country into two separate governments – the north and the south. France was especially alarmed by British attempts to monopolize trade. To stop any British move into Vietnam, the French government decided in 1857 to force the Vietnamese to accept French protection. The French eventually succeeded in making the Vietnamese ruler give up territories in the Mekong River delta. The French occupied the city of Saigon and, during the next 30 years, extended their control over the rest of the country. In 1884 France seized the city of Hanoi and later made the Vietnamese empire a French protectorate. In the 1880 s, France extended its control over neighboring Cambodia, Annam, Tonkin and Laos. By 1887, France included all of its new possessions in a new Union of French Indochina. After the French conquest of Indochina, Thailand (then called Siam) was the only remaining free state in Southwest Asia. During the last quarter of the 19 th century, British and French rivalry threatened to place Thailand, too, under colonial rule. Two remarkable rulers were able to prevent that from happening. One was King Mongkut and the other was his son, King Chulalongkorn. Both promoted Western learning and maintained friendly relations with the major European powers. In 1896 Britain and France agreed to maintain Thailand as an independent buffer state between their possessions in Southeast Asia.
Closure Question #1: List some benefits colonial rule brought to Southeast Asia. Do you think these benefits outweighed the disadvantages? Explain. (At least 1 sentence) The colonial powers did not want their colonists to develop their own industries. Thus, colonial policy stressed the export of raw materials. This policy often led to some form of plantation agriculture. Peasants worked as wage laborers on the foreign owned plantations. Plantation owners kept wages at poverty levels to increase profits. Conditions on plantations were often so unhealthy that thousands died. Also, peasants bore the burden of high taxes. Nevertheless, colonial rule did bring some benefits to Southeast Asia. A modern economic system began there. Colonial governments built railroads, highways, and other structures that benefited native peoples as well as colonials. The development of an export market helped create an entrepreneurial class in rural areas. In the Dutch East Indies, for example, small growers of rubber, palm oil, coffee, tea, and spices began to share in the profits of the colonial enterprise. Most of the profits, however, were taken back to the colonial mother country.
Emilio Aguinaldo – Filipino revolutionary leader who led the fight for Independence from Spain with the support of the U. S. ; however, when the U. S. stationed troops in the Philippines after the war, Aguinaldo organized a rebellion against U. S. rule. In the fight that followed, 200, 000 Filipinos and 5, 000 Americans were killed, and Aguinaldo was captured in 1901. One final conquest in Southeast Asia occurred at the end of the 19 th century. In 1898, during the Spanish. American War, U. S. naval forces under George Dewey, defeated the Spanish fleet in Manilla Bay. Believing it was his moral obligation to “civilize” other parts of the world, President William Mc. Kinley decided to turn the Philippines, which had been under Spanish control, into an American colony. This action would also prevent the area from falling into the hands of the Japanese. In fact, the islands gave the U. S. a convenient jumping-off point to trade with China. The Filipinos did not agree with the American control. Emilio Aguinaldo was the leader of a movement for independence in the Philippines. He began his revolt against the Spanish and went into exile in 1898. When the United States acquired the Philippines, Aguinaldo continued the revolt and set himself up as the president of the Republic of the Philippines. Led by Aguinaldo, the guerrilla forces fought bitterly against the United States troops to establish their independence. The fight for Philippine independence resulted in three years of bloody warfare. However, the United States defeated the guerrilla forces, and President Mc. Kinley had his stepping stone to the rich markets of China.
Closure Question #2: Why were resistance movements often led by native leaders who had been educated in the West? (1 sentence) Early resistance movements failed. They were overcome by Western powers. At the beginning of the 20 th century, a new kind of resistance began to emerge that was based on the force of nationalism. The leaders were often from a new class that the colonial rule had created: westernized intellectuals in the cities. In many cases, this new urban middle class – composed of merchants, clerks, students, and professionals – had been educated in Western-style schools. They were the first generation of Asians to embrace the institutions and values of the West. Many spoke Western languages and worked in jobs connected with the colonial regimes. At first, many of the leaders of these movements did not focus clearly on the idea of nationhood. Instead, they simply tried to defend the economic interests or religious beliefs of the native peoples. In Burma, for example, students at the University of Rangoon formed an organization to protect against official persecution of the Buddhist religion and British lack of respect for local religious traditions. They protested against British arrogance and failure to observe local customs in Buddhist temples. Not until the 1930 s did these resistance movements begin to demand national independence.
Annexation / Queen Liluokalani Annexation – Incorporation of a country within a state; for example, the United States annexed Hawaii in 1898, declaring it to be American property. Queen Liliuokalani – Hawaiian Queen; Fearful that an American takeover of her islands might occur, Liliuokalani tried to strengthen her monarchy and deport all foreigners in 1893. In response, the U. S. sent military forces to the island deposed the Queen. Hawaii became a territory of the U. S. in 1898. In the late 1800 s, the U. S. began to expand abroad. The Samoan Islands in the Pacific were the first important U. S. colony. By 1887, Americans controlled the sugar industry on the Hawaiian Islands. As more Americans settled in Hawaii, they wanted political power. When Queen Liliuokalani tried to strengthen the monarchy to keep the islands under her people’s control, the U. S. sent military forces to the island. The queen was deposed and the U. S. annexed Hawaii in 1898. In 1898 the U. S. defeated Spain in the Spanish. American War. As a result, the U. S. acquired the former Spanish possessions of Puerto Rico, Guam, and the Philippines. By the beginning of the 20 th century, the U. S. , the world’s richest nation, had an empire. Closure Question #3: Identify the effects of colonial rule on the colonies. (At least 2 effects in 1 sentence)
Closure Assignment #8 Answer the following questions based on the information covered in Chapter 27, Section 4: 1. List some benefits colonial rule brought to Southeast Asia. (At least 1 sentence) Do you think these benefits outweighed the disadvantages. Explain. (At least 1 sentence) 2. Why were resistance movements often led by native leaders who had been educated in the West? (At least 1 sentence) How did their goals change over time? (At least 1 sentence) 3. Identify the effects of colonial rule on the colonies. (At least 2 effects in 1 sentence)
Opium War (1839 -1842) Conflict between the Chinese Qing Empire and Great Britain; The sale of highly-addictive Opium by British merchants in China led to a high trade-deficit, weakening the Chinese economy. When the Emperor ordered a ban on the sale of Opium, the British responded by blockading major Chinese ports, leading to an escalation of conflict. The defeat of the Qing by the British opened the path for European imperial conquest of the Chinese mainland, making the Qing subservient to European interests. Opium was grown in northern India under the sponsorship of the British East India Company and then shipped directly to Chinese markets. Demand for opium – a highly addictive drug – in South China jumped dramatically. Soon, silver was flowing out of China and into the pockets of the officials of the British East India Company. The Chinese reacted strongly. The British were not the first to import opium into China. The Chinese government had already seen opium’s dangerous qualities and had made its trade illegal. They appealed to the British government on moral grounds to stop the traffic in opium. The British refused to halt their activity, however. As a result, the Chinese blockaded the foreign area in Guangzhou to force traders to surrender their opium. The British responded with force, starting the Opium War (1839 -1842). The Chinese were not match for the British warships destroyed Chinese coastal and river forts. When a British fleet sailed almost unopposed up the Chang Jiang (Yangtze River) to Nanjing, the Qing dynasty made peace. In the treaty of Nanjing in 1842, the Chinese agreed to open five coastal ports to British trade, limit taxes on imported British goods, and pay for the costs of the war. China also agreed to give the British the island of Hong Kong. Nothing was said in the treaty about the opium trade. Moreover, in the five ports, Europeans lived in their own sections and were subject not to Chinese laws but to their own laws – a practice known as extraterritoriality. The Opium War marked the beginning of the establishment of Western influence in China. For the time being, the Chinese dealt with the problem by pitting foreign
Extraterritorial Rights Policy that Europeans living in Chinese ports were subject to their own laws, not to Chinese laws; Under this system, if a British subject engaged in criminal activity while in China, he or she could only be arrested by British authorities and would have to be tried in British courts. Extraterritorial Rights was a condition of the Treaty of Nanjing which ended the Opium War. One important reason for the abrupt decline and fall of the Qing dynasty was the intense external pressure that the modern West applied to Chinese society. However, internal problems that the government was slow to address also played a role. After an extended period of growth, the Qing dynasty began to suffer from corruption, peasant unrest, and incompetence. These weaknesses were made worse by rapid growth in the country’s population. By 1900, there were 400 million people in China. Population growth created a serious food shortage, and many people died of starvation. The ships, guns, and ideas of foreigners highlighted the growing weakness of the Qing dynasty and probably hastened its end. By 1800, Europeans had been in contact with China for more than 200 years. Wanting to limit contact with outsiders, the Qing dynasty had restricted European merchants to a small trading outlet at Guangzhou, or Canton. The merchants could deal with only a few Chinese firms. The British did not like this arrangement. Britain had a trade deficit, or an unfavorable trade balance, with China. That is, it imported more goods from China than it exported to China. Britain had to pay China with silver for the difference between its imports – tea, silk, and porcelain – from China and its exports – Indian cotton – to China. At first, the British tried to negotiate with the Chinese to improve the trade imbalance. When negotiations failed, the British turned to trading opium.
Taiping Rebellion (1850 -1864) Convinced that the Christian God gave him the mission to destroy the Qing Dynasty, Hong Xiuquan led armies of peasants to capture major northern Chinese cities and establish a Christian government. However, by 1864, with European aid, the forces of the Qing destroyed the rebel forces. Joined by great crowds of peasants, Hong captured the town of Yongan and proclaimed a new dyansty, the Heavenly Kingdom of Great Peace (Tai Ping Tianguo in Chiense – hence the name Tai Ping Rebellion). The Tai Ping Rebellion appealed to many people because it called for social reforms. These reforms included giving land to all peasants and treating women as equals of men. Women even served in their own units in the Tai Ping army. Hong’s rebellion also called for people to give up their private possessions. Peasants were to hold lands and farms in common. Money, food, and clothing were to be shared equally by all. Hong outlawed alcohol and tobacco, and eliminated the practice of binding women’s feet. The Chinese Communist Revolution of the 20 th century would have similar social goals. In March 1853, the rebels seized Nanjing, the second largest city of the empire, and massacred 25, 000 men, women, and children. The revolt continued for 10 more years, but gradually began to fall apart. Europeans came to the aid of the Qing dynasty when they realized the destructive nature of the Tai Ping forces. As one British observer noted, there was no hope “of any good ever coming of the rebel movement. They do nothing but burn, murder, and destroy. ” In 1864, Chinese forces, with European aid, recaptured Nanjing and destroyed the remaining rebel force. The Tai Ping Rebellion was one of the most devastating civil wars in history. As many as 20 million people died during the 14 -year struggle. China’s ongoing struggle with the West prevented the Qing dynasty from dealing effectively with internal conflict. Beginning in 1856, the British and the French applied force to gain greater trade privileges. As a result of the Treaty of Tianjin in 1858, the Chinese agreed to legalize the opium trade and to open new ports to foreign trade. They also surrendered the Kowloon Peninsula to Great Britain. When the Chinese resisted parts of the treaty, the British seized Beijing in 1860.
Sphere of Influence A region of China where a European imperial power had exclusive trading rights. As the Qing Dynasty began to decline, many European nations, as well as Japan, staked claims to the rich natural resources and immense sources of labor provided by China, carving up the country into different spheres of influence. By the late 1870 s, the Qing dynasty was in decline. Unable to restore order themselves, government troops had relied on forces recruited by regional warlords to help fight the Tai Ping Rebellion. To finance their armies, the warlords had collected taxes from local people. After the revolt, many of these warlords kept their armies. With the support of the local gentry, the regional warlords continued to collect local taxes for their own use. In its weakened state, the Qing court finally began to listen to the appeals of reform-minded officials. The reformers called for a new policy they called “self-strengthening. ” That is, China should adopt Western technology but keep its Confucian values and institutions. Some reformers wanted to change China’s traditional political institutions by introducing democracy. However, such ideas were too radical for most reformers. During the last quarter of the 19 th century, the Chinese government tried to modernize China’s military forces and build up industry without touching the basic elements of China’s civilization. Railroads, weapons factories, and shipyards were built. However, the Chinese value system remained unchanged. In the end, however, the changes did not help the Qing stay in power. The European advance into China continued during the last two decades of the nineteenth century. Internal conditions also continued to deteriorate. In the north and northeast, Russia took advantage of the Qing dynasty’s weakness to force China to give up territories north of the Amur River in Siberia. Russia wanted both Manchuria and Mongolia and even had designs on Korea. Russia’s designs on Korea threatened the Japanese. When Russia took military control of Manchuria, Britain signed an alliance with Japan. In Tibet, a struggle between Russia and
The Open Door Policy
Open Door Policy U. S. policy towards China introduced by Secretary of State John Hay (1898 -1905); Hay sent a series of notes to European imperialist nations advising them that the United States expected to have an equal opportunity for trade in China, even though it did not have its own sphere of influence. Through the Open Door Policy the U. S. advised imperialist nations in China that a) the U. S. had no interest in establishing a colony in China, but b) the U. S. did want free trade to take place in China. As foreign pressure on the Qing dynasty grew stronger, both Great Britain and the United States feared that other nations would overrun the country should the Chinese government collapse. The annexation of Hawaii and the Philippines had encouraged the expansion of American interests in the Pacific. The United States now was fully engaged in expanding its stake in the global marketplace. In 1899, U. S. Secretary of state John Hay wrote a note to Britain, Russia, Germany, France, Italy and Japan. Hay asked each country to respect equal trading opportunities in China. He also asked the powers with a sphere of influence not to set tariffs that would give an unfair advantage to the citizens of their own country. This note was not shown to the Chinese government. When none of the other imperialist governments expressed opposition to the idea, Hay proclaimed that all major states with economic interests in China had agreed that the country should have an Open Door policy. “The policy of the government of the United States is to seek a solution which may bring about permanent safety and peace to China, preserve Chinese territorial and administrative entity, protect all rights guaranteed to friendly powers by treaty and international law, and safeguard for the world the principle of equal and impartial trade with all parts of the Chinese Empire. ” –John Hay, 1900
Closure Question #1: Why did European nations agree to follow the Open Door policy proposed by the U. S. ? (At least 1 sentence) In part, the Open Door policy reflected American concern for the survival of China. However, it also reflected the interests of some U. S. trading companies. These companies wanted to operate in open markets and disliked the existing division of China into separate spheres of influence dominated by individual states. The Open Door policy did not end the system of spheres of influence. However, it did reduce restrictions on foreign imports imposed by the dominating power within each sphere. The Open Door policy also helped reduce imperialist hysteria over access to the China market. The policy lessened fears in Britain, France, Germany, and Russia that other powers would take advantage of China’s weakness and attempt to dominate the China market for themselves.
Boxer Rebellion In May 1900, the Boxers (nickname for Chinese nationalists) killed foreign missionaries and besieged foreign diplomats in Beijing. A multinational force of 20, 000 soldiers, including 2, 000 Americans, united to defeat the Boxers. Chinese nationalists remained hostile to outsiders and, in 1911, overthrew the emperor to establish a new Chinese government. In 1894 the Chinese went to war with Japan over Japanese inroads into Korea, a land that the Chinese had controlled for a long time. The Chinese were soundly defeated in the First Sino-Japanese War. Japan demanded and received the island of Taiwan (known to the Europeans as Formosa) and the Liaodong Peninsula. Fearing Japan’s growing powers, however, the European powers forced Japan to give the Liaodong Peninsula back to China. New pressures for Chinese territory soon arose. In 1897, Chinese rioters murdered two German missionaries. Germany used this as a pretext to demand territories in the Shandong Peninsula. When the Chinese government approved the demand, other European nations made new claims on Chinese territory. The Boxer Rebellion was the next in a long line of violent uprisings, taking place in 1900. Response to the killings of missionaries and Chinese Christians was immediate and overwhelming. When William II, emperor of Germany, learned of the envoy’s fate, he sent German troops to China and declared: “Show no mercy! Take no prisoners!. . . The Huns of King Attila made a name for themselves… impose the name of Germany in China… in such a way that no Chinese will ever dare look askance at a German again. ” In August 1900, the allied army restored order and demanded more concessions from the Chinese government. The Chinese government was forced to pay a heavy indemnity – a payment for damages – to the powers that had crushed the uprising. The imperial government was now weaker than ever.
Closure Question #2: List the countries that supplied troops for the allied army, which was formed to fight the Boxers in 1900. The Open Door policy came too late to stop the Boxer Rebellion. Boxer was the popular name given to members of a secret organization called the Society of Harmonious Fists. Members practiced a system of exercise – a form of shadowboxing, or boxing with an imaginary opponent – that they thought would protect them from bullets. The Boxers were upset by the foreign takeover of Chinese lands. Their slogan was “destroy the foreigner. ” They especially disliked Christian missionaries and Chinese converts to Christianity who seemed to threaten Chinese traditions. At the beginning of 1900, Boxer bands roamed the countryside and slaughtered foreign missionaries and Chinese Christians. Their victims also included foreign businessmen and even the German envoy in Beijing. Response to the killing of missionaries and Chinese Christians was immediate and overwhelming. An allied army consisting of 20, 000 British, French, German, Russian, American, and Japanese troops attacked Beijing in August 1900. The army restored order and
Closure Assignment #9 Answer the following questions based on the information covered in Chapter 28, Section 1: 1. Why did European nations agree to follow the Open Door policy proposed by the U. S. ? (At least 1 sentence) 2. List the countries that supplied troops for the allied army, which was formed to fight the Boxers in 1900. 3. Why did foreign powers help the Chinese government put down the Boxer Rebellion? (At least 1 sentence)
Treaty of Kangawa (1854) Agreement between Japan and the United States under which American ships were allowed to take on supplies at two ports in Japan. The Japanese had previously refused to allow any foreign ships to docks at its ports, but a massive fleet of American steam-powered ships shocked the Tokugawa Shogun into giving in to the Americans’ demands for free trade. By 1860, Japan, like China, had granted foreigners permission to trade at several treaty ports. By the end of the 19 th century, Japan was emerging as a modern imperialist power. The Japanese followed the example of Western nations, while trying to preserve Japanese values. By 1800, the Tokugawa shogunate had ruled Japan for 200 years. The Tokugawa had maintained an isolationist policy, keeping formal relations only with Korea and allowing only Dutch and Chinese merchants at Nagasaki. Western nations wanted to end Japan’s isolation, believing that the expansion of trade on a global basis would benefit all nations. The first foreign power to succeed with Japan was the United States. In the summer of 1853, Commodore Matthew Perry arrived in Edo Bay with an American fleet of four warships. Perry sought “to bring a singular and isolated people into the family of civilized nations. ” Perry brought a letter from President Millard Fillmore, asking the Japanese for better treatment of sailors shipwrecked on the Japanese islands. (Foreign sailors shipwrecked in Japan were treated as criminals and exhibited in public cages. ) He also asked to open foreign relations between the United States and Japan. Perry returned about 6 months later for an answer, this time with a larger fleet. Having discussed the issue, some shogunate officials recommended concessions, or political compromises. The guns of Perry’s ships ultimately made Japan’s decision.
Meiji Era Period from the mid to late 1800 s in which Japan, under the leadership of a new, young emperor, Mutsuhito, oversaw technological progress, the formation of an authoritarian democracy, redistribution of land from the daimyo to peasants, the relocation of the national capital from Kyoto to Edo (modern Tokyo), and the rise of Japan as an imperialist power. Once in power the new leaders moved first to abolish the old order and to strengthen power in their hands. To undercut the power of the daimyo – the local nobles – the new leaders stripped these great lords of the titles to their lands in 1871. As compensation, the lords were given government bonds and were named governors of the territories formerly under their control. The territories were now called prefectures. The Meiji reformers set out to create a modern political system based on the Western model. In 1868, the new leaders signed a Charter Oath, in which they promised to create a new legislative assembly within the framework of continued imperial rule. Although the daimyo were given senior positions in the new government, the modernizing leaders from the Sat-Cho group held the key posts. The country was divided into 75 prefectures (The number was reduced to 45 in 1889 and remains at that number today. ) During the next 20 years, the Meiji government undertook a careful study of Western political systems. A commission under Ito Hirobumi traveled to Great Britain, France, Germany, and the United States to study their governments. As the process evolved, two main factions appeared, the Liberals and the Progressives. The Liberals wanted political reform based on the Western liberal democratic model, which vested supreme authority in the parliament as the representative of the people. The Progressives wanted power to be shared between the legislative and executive branches, with the executive branch having more control. Closure Question #1: Illustrate the results of Western influence on Japanese culture by using a diagram like this one: Western Influence on Japanese Culture
Closure Question #2: How did the Japanese land reform program create internal problems? (At least 1 sentence) The Meiji leaders also set up a land reform program, which made the traditional lands of the daimyo into the private property of the peasants. The Meiji leaders then levied a new land tax, which was set at an annual rate of three percent of the estimated value of the land. The new tax was an excellent source of revenue for the government. However, it was quite burdensome for the farmers. Under the old system, farmers had paid a fixed percentage of their harvest to the landowners. In bad harvest years, they had owed little or nothing. Under the new system, the farmers had to pay the land tax every year, regardless of the quality of the harvest. As a result, in bad years, many peasants were unable to pay their taxes. This forced them to sell their lands to wealthy neighbors and become tenant farmers who paid rent to the new owners. By the end of the 19 th century, about 40 percent of all farmers were tenants.
Russo-Japanese War (1904 -1905) Japan destroyed Russia’s pacific fleet in northern China without officially declaring war, then sent ground troops to drive Russia out of Manchuria (northern China), causing more than 100, 000 casualties. In 1905 President Theodore Roosevelt facilitated negotiations between Russia and Japan to end the conflict. Roosevelt was given the Nobel Peace Prize for his efforts. The Japanese began their program of territorial expansion close to home. In 1874, Japan claimed control of the Ryukyu Islands, which belonged to the Chinese Empire. Two years later, Japan’s navy forced the Koreans to open their pots to Japanese trade. The Chinese grew concerned by Japan’s growing influence there. In the 1880 s, Chinese-Japanese rivalry over Korea intensified. In 1894, the two nations went to war, and Japan won. In the treaty ending the war, China recognized Korea’s independence. China also transferred Taiwan and the Liaodong Peninsula, with its strategic naval base at Port Arthur, to Japan. In time, the Japanese gave the Liaodong Peninsula back to China. Rivalry with Russia over influence in Korea had led to increasingly strained relations. The Russians thought little of the Japanese and even welcomed the possibility of war. One adviser to Nicholas II said, “We will only have to throw our caps at them and they will run away. ” The Russo-Japanese War began in 1904. Japan launched a surprise attack on the Russian naval base at Port Arthur, which Russia had taken from China in 1898. The Russian commander in chief said, “It is impossible not to admire the bravery and activity of the Japanese. The attack of the Japanese is a continuous succession of waves, and they never relax their efforts by day or by night. ” In the meantime, Russia had sent its Baltic fleet halfway around the world to East Asia, only to be defeated by the new Japanese navy off the coast of Japan. After their defeat, the Russians agreed to a humiliating peace in 1905. They gave the Liaodong Peninsula back to Japan, as well as the southern part of Sakhalin, an island north of Japan. The Japanese victory stunned the world. Japan had become one of the great powers.
Closure Question #3: Compare the rights of Japanese women before and after the Meiji Restoration. (At least 2 sentences) Before the Meiji reforms, women were especially limited by the “three obediences”: child to father, wife to husband, and widow to son. Husbands could easily obtain a divorce; wives could not. Marriages were arranged, and the average marital age of females was 16 years. Females did not share inheritance rights with males. Few received any education outside the family. The Meiji Restoration had a marked effect on the traditional social system in Japan. Special privileges for the aristocracy were abolished. For the first time, women were allowed to seek an education. As the economy shifted from an agricultural to an industrial base, thousands of Japanese began to get new jobs and establish new social relationships. Western fashions and culture became the rage. The ministers of the first Meiji government were known as the “dancing cabinet” because they loved Western-style ballroom dancing. A new generation of modern boys and girls began to imitate the clothing, styles, eating habits, hairstyles, and social practices of European and American young people. The game of baseball was imported from the United States.
Annexation After defeating Russia and laying claim to Manchuria, Japan attacked Korea. Unable to rally international support for his rule, the Korean king gave up control of the country in 1907. In 1910, Japan officially annexed, or claimed power to rule, the nation of Korea. From the start, a unique feature of the Meiji model of industrial development was the close relationship between government and private business. The government encouraged the development of new industries by providing businesspeople with money and privileges. Once an individual enterprise or industry was on its feet, it was turned over entirely to private ownership. Even then, however, the government continued to play some role in the industry’s activities. The Meiji reformers also transformed other institutions. A key focus of their attention was the military. The reformers were well aware that Japan would need a modern military force to compete with the West. A new imperial army based on compulsory military service was formed in 1871. All Japanese men now served for three years. The new army was well equipped with modern weapons. Education also changed. The Meiji leaders realized the need for universal education, including instruction in modern technology. A new ministry of education, established in 1871, adopted the American model of elementary schools, secondary schools, and universities. It brought foreign specialists to Japan to teach, and it sent many students to study abroad. Much of the content of the new educational system was Western in its inspiration. However, a great deal of emphasis was still placed on the virtues of loyalty to the family and community. Loyalty to the emperor was especially valued.
Closure Assignment #10 Answer the following questions based on the information covered in Chapter 28, Section 2: 1. Illustrate the results of Western influence on Japanese culture by using a diagram like this one: Western Influence on Japanese Culture 2. How did the Japanese land reform program create internal problems? (At least 1 sentence) 3. Compare the rights of Japanese women before and after the Meiji Restoration. (At least 2 sentences)
Caudillo Strong military leaders who gained power in Latin America following the revolutions against European rule in the 19 th century. Most of the new nations of Latin America began with republican governments, but they had no experience in self-rule. Soon after independence, strong leaders known as caudillos gained power. Caudillos ruled chiefly by military force & were usually supported by the landed elites. Many kept the new national states together. Some were also modernizers who built roads and canals, ports, and schools. Others were destructive. Santa Anna misused state funds, halted reforms, & created chaos. As one historian judged, “Any progress in Mexico achieved during the era of Santa Anna had nothing to do with him. ” In 1835 American settlers in the Mexican state of Texas revolted against Santa Anna’s rule. Texas gained its independence in 1836 and United States statehood followed in 1845. War between Mexico and the United States soon followed (1846 -1848). Mexico was defeated & lost almost one-half of its territory to the United States in the Mexican War. Fortunately, for Mexico, Santa Anna’s disastrous rule was followed by a period of reform from 1855 to 1876. This era was dominated by Benito Juarez, a Mexican national hero. The son of Native American peasants, President Juarez brought liberal reforms to Mexico. Some of Juarez’s Laws of Reform included separation of church and state, toleration of all faiths, curbing the power of the military, an educational system for all of Mexico, and the redistribution of land to the poor.
Monroe Doctrine American foreign-policy issued in 1823 regarding Latin America which guaranteed the protection of independent Latin nations, vowing that if any European nation attempted to use military force in the Americas the United States would respond through the use of its own military force. In the early 1820 s, only one major threat remained to the newly won independence of the Latin American states. Members of the Concert of Europe favored the use of troops to restore Spanish control in Latin America. The British, who wished to trade with Latin America, disagreed. They proposed joint action with the United States against any European moves against Latin America. Distrustful of British motives, James Monroe, the president of the US, acted alone in 1823. In the Monroe Doctrine he guaranteed the independence of the new Latin American nations. The Monroe Doctrine also strongly warned against any European intervention in the Americas. More important to Latin-American independence than American words, however, was the British navy. Other European powers feared the power of the British navy which stood between Latin America and any planned European invasion force. The new Latin American nations faced a number of serious problems between 1830 and 1870. The wars for independence had resulted in a staggering loss of people, property, and livestock. Unsure of their precise boundaries, the new nations went to war with one another to settle border disputes. Poor roads, a lack of railroads, thick jungles, and mountains made communication, transportation, and national unity difficult. During the course of the 19 th century, the new Latin American nations would become economically dependent on Western nations once again.
Jose’ Marti Cuban patriot who launched a war for independence of Cuba from Spain in 1895; Many Americans favored the Cubans because of the similarities between the Cuban and American Revolutions, the brutality of the Spanish towards native Cubans, and the loss of American property in Cuba as a result of the conflict. By 1897, American entrepreneurs had invested $50 million in sugar cane plantations and other ventures in Cuba, which lay just 90 miles off the Florida coast. These businessmen saw Cuba as a growing market for American products. However, the island was very unstable. Yearning for freedom, the Cubans repeatedly rebelled against Spanish rule. In 1895, Cuban patriot Jose’ Marti launched a war for independence from Spain. With cries of “Cuba Libre!” (“Free Cuba!”), rebel fighters used guerrilla tactics of hit-and-run raids against Spanish forces. In response, Spanish General Victoriano Weyler devised a plan to deprive rebels of food and recruits. He herded the rural population into reconcentration camps, where tens of thousands died from disease and starvation. In 1867, Secretary of State William Seward bought Alaska from Russia for $7. 2 million. Journalists scoffed at the purchase and referred to Alaska as “Seward’s Folly” and “Seward’s Icebox. ” They wondered why the United States would want a vast tundra of snow and ice 1, 000 miles north of its border. But Seward’s purchase almost doubled the country’s size, and the “ice-box” turned out to be rich in timber, oil, and other natural resources. Alaska also greatly expanded America’s reach across the Pacific. Scholars today see Seward’s purchase as a milestone on America’s road to power. U. S. businessmen saw Latin-America as a natural place to expand their trade and investments. Secretary of State James Blaine helped them by sponsoring the First International Pan-American Conference in 1889. Blaine preached the benefits of economic cooperation to delegates of 17 Latin American countries. The conference also paved the way for construction of the Pan-American Highway system, which linked the United States to Central and South America. In 1895, tensions rose between America and Great Britain because of a border dispute between British Guiana and Venezuela. Claiming that Britain was violating the Monroe Doctrine, Cleveland threatened U. S. intervention. After some international Closure Question #1: President Do you think the United States would havesaber-rattling, gone tothe war British accepted a growing U. S. sphere of influence in Latin America. with Spain without the explosion of the Maine? Why or Why not? (At least 1 sentence)
Spanish-American War (1898) Following several years of brutal warfare between Spain and Cuban revolutionaries, the United States joined the conflict on the side of the revolutionaries. However, American forces also used the war as an excuse to attack and claim Spanish colonies in the Philippines, Guam, and Puerto Rico also. American troops landed in Cuba in June, 1898. U. S. Marines captured Guantanamo Bay, and a force of 17, 000 soldiers under U. S. Army General William Shafter stormed ashore east of Santiago. In spite of their excitement for the war, the troops faced deplorable conditions. They were poorly trained and supplied. As the assembled for duty around Tampa, Florida, the soldiers were issued obsolete weapons and heavy wool uniforms that were unsuitable for Cuba’s tropical climate. Corrupt and inefficient officials provided the men with rotting and contaminated food. General Shafter’s army consisted of state National Guard units and regular army units, including the African American 9 th and 10 th Cavalry regiments from the western frontier. Another cavalry unit was organized and commanded by the future President Theodore Roosevelt. His Rough Riders consisted of rugged westerners and upper-class easterners who relished what Roosevelt called the “strenuous life”. The Rough Riders and Roosevelt gained fame for the role they played in the battles for Kettle and San Juan hills outside Santiago, Cuba. Joined by African American soldiers from the 9 th and 10 th regiments, the Riders stormed up those hills to secure high ground surrounding Santiago. Two days after the battle of San Juan Hill, the Spanish navy made a desperate attempt to escape from Santiago’s harbor. U. S. forces, which had blockaded the harbor, destroyed the Spanish fleet as it tried to break out. Surrounded, outnumbered, and dispirited, Spanish forces in Santiago surrendered. Although a few battles followed when U. S. troops forces occupied the island of Puerto Rico, another Spanish possession, the fighting had come to an end. Although almost 3, 000 Americans died during the war, only around 380 died in combat. Disease, especially malaria and yellow fever, caused most of the deaths.
Panama Canal Waterway dug in Central America to connect the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans; the U. S. supervised construction of the canal, which was completed in 1914, after instigating a rebellion in Panama, which had been a province of Colombia. The new Panamanian nation then sold the rights to the canal to the U. S. , allowing America to gain profit from the shipping companies who paid to use the canal. Although the plan to dig a canal across Central America did not originate with Roosevelt, he nevertheless played a crucial role in its history. In the late 1800 s, a French company had tried to link the Atlantic and Pacific across the Isthmus of Panama but failed. Afterward, some suggested building a canal through Nicaragua. However, those plans came to nothing. Eventually, an agent from the French company that had abandoned its canal attempt convinced the United States to buy the company’s claim. In 1903, the U. S. government bought the Panama route for $40 million. Before it could build a canal through Panama, however, the United States needed the consent of the Colombian government. At that time, Panama was part of independent Colombia. American efforts to negotiate a purchase of land across the isthmus stalled when Colombia demanded more than the United States was willing to provide. So Roosevelt stepped in. The President dispatched U. S. warships to the waters off Panama to support a Panamanian rebellion against Colombia. The appearance of the U. S. Navy convinced the Colombians not to suppress the uprising. Panama soon declared its independence from Colombia. The new nation immediately granted America control over the “Canal Zone”. To secure this land for its vital trade link, America agreed to pay Panama $10 million and an annual rent of $250, 000. More than 35, 000 workers helped dig the Panama Canal, often in very difficult conditions. Completion of the canal depended on scientific breakthroughs by doctors as they learned how to combat tropical diseases. Still, more than 5, 000 canal workers died from disease or accidents while building the canal. When the finished waterway opened in 1914, it cut some 8, 000 nautical miles off the trip from the west coast to the east coast of the United States. Closure Question #2: What impact did the building of the Panama Canal have on American trade? (At least 1 sentence)
Roosevelt Corollary Updating the Monroe Doctrine, Roosevelt argued that in the case of “chronic wrongdoing” by a Latin American nation the U. S. would assume the role of police power to restore order & keep other nations from intervening. “Big Stick” stemmed from Roosevelt’s admiration for an old African saying, “Speak softly and carry a big stick; you will go far. ” Roosevelt’s view that American needed to carry a big stick during the Age of Imperialism flowed from his adherence to balance-of-power principles and from his responsibility to civilize weaker nations. In this sense, Roosevelt held similar beliefs to those of other imperial powers in Europe and Asia. Roosevelt felt that America’s elite – its statesmen and captains of industry – had to accept the challenge of international leadership. In the early 1900 s, the inability of Latin American nations to pay their debts to foreign investors raised the possibility of European intervention. In 1903, for example, Germany and Britain blockaded Venezuelan ports to ensure that debts to European bankers were repaid. Roosevelt concluded “If we intend to say hands off to the powers of Europe, then sooner or later we must keep order ourselves. ” So in a 1904 message to Congress, he announced a new Latin American policy: The Roosevelt Corollary. This change, Roosevelt argued, merely reasserted America’s long-standing policy of keeping the Western Hemisphere free from European intervention. Many Latin Americans resented America’s role as the hemisphere’s police force. They disagreed with Roosevelt’s belief that Latin Americans could not police themselves. Francisco Garcia Calderon, a Peruvian diplomat, contended that the Monroe Doctrine had taken on an “aggressive form with Mr. Roosevelt. ” Like Calderon, Nicaraguan spokesman Augusto Sandino felt that the U. S. threatened “sovereignty and liberty” Closure Question #3: How do the Monroe Doctrine and the Roosevelt of his people. reflect Sandino eventually an army of guerrillas against U. S. governments Marines in Nicaragua the 1920 s. Corollary similarled assumptions about the of in. Latin American nations? (At least 1 sentence)
Closure Assignment #11 Answer the following questions based on what you have learned from Chapter 28, Section 3: 1. Do you think the United States would have gone to war with Spain without the explosion of the Maine? Why or Why not? (At least 1 sentence) 2. What impact did the building of the Panama Canal have on American trade? (At least 1 sentence) 3. How do the Monroe Doctrine and the Roosevelt Corollary reflect similar assumptions about the governments of Latin American nations? (At least 1 sentence)
Antonio Lopez de Santa Anna Caudillo who ruled Mexico from 1833 to 1855; Calling himself the ‘Napoleon of the West’, Santa Anna misused state funds, halted reforms, & led losing military campaigns, weakening Mexico’s economy & losing territory. In 1834, the charismatic but ruthless general Antonio Lopez de Santa Anna seized power in Mexico City. Santa Anna favored a centralized, authoritarian government dominated by the military. His coup troubled those liberal Mexicans who preferred a decentralized federal system like that of the United States. Santa Anna’s rule especially angered the people of Texas, both Anglo-Texans and Tejanos, who wanted greater autonomy. One Anglo-Texan protested that Santa Anna would “give liberty to our slaves and make slaves of ourselves. ” Santa Anna led Mexican forces in war and defeat, first to the American Texans in 1836 and then to the Americans in 1847. Santa Anna favored a centralized, authoritarian government dominated by the military. His military coup troubled liberal Mexicans who preferred a decentralized federal system of government like the United States. In 1829 Santa Anna led Mexican forces to victory over the Spanish in their attempt to return Mexico to colonial status. After this victory Santa Anna became a Hero. He gave himself the title of “The Napoleon of the West”. In 1838, following his defeat in Texas, Santa Anna restored his honor by leading Mexico to defend it territory against French forces in what came to be known as the Pastry War. In the battle Santa Anna lost his leg, which was buried with full military honors. In 1835 Anglo-Texans seized the Mexican garrisons at Goliad and San Antonio, gradually building their military power. Texas was not the only Mexican state to revolt against Santa Anna; 11 other states did so in response to Santa Anna’s order to dissolve the Federal System of government. Texas, however, was the only state to maintain its Independence. Texas was officially recognized as an independent nation by the
Benito Juarez Mexican national hero who dominated the reform era in Mexico from 1855 to 1876, encouraging religious tolerance, establishing an educational system, and giving land to the poor. The son of Native American peasants, President Juarez brought liberal reforms to Mexico. Some of Juarez’s Laws of Reform included the separation of church and state, toleration of all faiths, curbing the power of the military, an educational system for all of Mexico, and the redistribution of land to the poor. Caudillos such as Juan Manuel de Rosas in Argentina, were supported by the masses. These caudillos became extremely popular and brought about radical change. Unfortunately, the caudillo’s authority depended on his personal power. When he died or lost power, civil wars for control of the country often erupted. Political independence brought economic independence, but old patterns were quickly reestablished. Instead of Spain and Portugal, Great Britain and the United States now dominated the Latin American economy. Great Britain dominated trade in Latin America for most of the 19 th century. British merchants moved into Latin America in large numbers, and British investors poured in funds. By the late 1920 s, the United States replaced Europe as the source of loans and investments. Direct U. S. investments in Latin America reached $3. 5 billion, out of a world total of $7. 5 billion. American, British, and other foreign investors built transportation and communication systems and power plants. These investors also introduced new technologies such as refrigeration, steam engines, and mining equipment. These innovations led to increased production of export commodities such as wheat, tobacco, wool, sugar, coffee, and hides. At the same time, Latin American countries imported finished consumer goods, especially textiles, and had limited industry. Closure Question #1: Why might Benito Juarez’s rise to power be considered surprising?
La Reforma Mexican liberal reform movement organized by Benito Juarez in the 1840 s and 1850 s. Its major goals were redistribution of land, separation of church and state, and increased educational opportunities for the poor. Santa Anna opposed the movement and sent its leaders, including Juarez, into exile. When Santa Anna was overthrown in 1855, Juarez returned and served as President of Mexico from 1861 to 1872. After 1870, Latin America began an age of prosperity based to a large extent on the export of a few basic items. These included wheat and beef from Argentina, coffee from Brazil, coffee and bananas from Central America, and sugar and silver from Peru. These foodstuffs and raw materials were largely exchanged for finished goods – textiles, machines, and luxury items – from Europe and the United States. After 1900, Latin Americans also increased their own industrialization. They built factories to produce textiles, foods, and construction materials. One result from the prosperity of increased exports was growth in the middle sectors (divisions) of Latin American society. Lawyers, merchants, shopkeepers, businesspeople, schoolteachers, professors, bureaucrats, and military officers increased in numbers. After 1900, these middle sectors of society continued to expand. Middle-class Latin Americans shared some common characteristics. They lived in cities and sought education and decent incomes. They also saw the United States as a model, especially in regard to industrialization. The middle-class sought liberal reform, not revolution. Once they had the right to vote, they generally sided with the landholding elites. Juarez was reelected president of Mexico in 1867. He returned to the reforms he had proposed more than ten years earlier. He began rebuilding the country, which had been shattered during years of war. He promoted trade with foreign countries, the opening of new roads, the building of railroads, and the establishment of a telegraph service. HE set up a national education system separate from that run by the Catholic Church. In 1872, Juarez died of a heart attack. But after a half century of civil strife and chaos, he left his country a legacy of relative peace, progress, and reform.
Closure Question #2: How did persistent inequality contribute to the failure of democracy in the young Latin American nations? (At least 1 sentence) A fundamental problem for all of the new Latin American nations was the domination of society by the landed elites. Large estates remained a way of life in Latin America. By 1848, for example, the Sanchez Navarro family in Mexico possessed 17 estates made up of 16 million acres. Latin American estates were often so large that they could not be farmed efficiently. Land remained the basis of wealth, social prestige, and political power throughout the 19 th century. Landed elites ran governments, controlled courts, and kept a system of inexpensive labor. Those land-owners made enormous profits by growing single cash crops, such as coffee for export. Most of the population had no land to grow basic food crops. As a result, the masses experienced dire poverty.
Porfirio Diaz Mexican caudillo and pure-blooded Native American who rose through the ranks of the Mexican army during the years of civil war in the 1850 s and the fight to oust the French, who had invaded in 1862. After being refused a government position during Juarez’s presidency, Diaz came to oppose Mexico’s liberal government. In 1876, Diaz took control of Mexico through a military coup d’etat and ruled Mexico as a dictator until 1911. During the Diaz years, elections became meaningless. Diaz offered land, power, or political favors to anyone who supported him. He terrorized many who refused to support him, ordering them to be beaten or put in jail. Using such strong-arm methods, Diaz managed to remain in power until 1911. Over the years, Diaz used a political slogan adapted from a rallying cry of the Juarez era. Juarez had called for “Liberty, Order, and Progress. ” Diaz, however, wanted merely “Order and Progress”. For decades, Mexican dictator Porfirio Diaz had benefited his country’s small upper class of wealthy landowners, clerics, and military men. With Diaz’s encouragement, foreign investments in Mexico grew. As a result, Americans business people owned large portions of Mexico's industries. While foreign investors and Mexico’s aristocracy grew rich, Mexico’s large population of farmers struggled in poverty. In 1911, Francisco Madero led the Mexican Revolution that toppled Diaz. Madero was committed to reforms but was a weak administrator. In 1913, General Victoriano Huerta seized power and executed Madero. Under “dollar diplomacy”, Taft probably would have recognized Huerta as the leader of Mexico because Huerta promised to protect American investments. But under “moral diplomacy”, Wilson refused to do so, declaring that he would not accept a “government of butchers”. Instead, Wilson favored Venustiano Carranza, another reformer, who had organized anti-Huerta forces.
Francisco Madero Born into one of the richest families in Mexico and educated in the United States and France, Madero announced his candidacy for president of Mexico in 1910. Soon after, Diaz had Madero arrested and exiled to the United States. From exile, Madero called for an armed revolution against Diaz, sparking the Mexican Revolution. Madero was elected president in November 1911. However, his policies were seen as too liberal by some and not revolutionary enough by others. Some of those who had supported Madero, including Villa and Zapata, took up arms against him. In 1913, realizing that he could not hold onto power, Madero resigned. This military leader General Victoriano Huerta then took over the presidency. Shortly after, Madero was assassinated, probably on Huerta’s orders. Huerta was unpopular with many people, including Villa and Zapata. These revolutionary leaders allied themselves with Venustiano Carranza, another politician who wanted to overthrow Huerta. Their three armies advanced, seizing the Mexican countryside from Huerta’s forces and approaching the capital, Mexico City. They overthrew Huerta only 15 months after he took power. Carranza took control of the government and then turned his army on his former revolutionary allies. Both Villa and Zapata continued to fight. In 1919, however, Carranza led Zapata into a trap and murdered him. With Zapata’s death, the civil war also came to an end. More than a million Mexicans had lost their lives. Carranza began a revision of Mexico’s condition. It was adopted in 1917. A revolutionary document, that constitution is still in effect today. As shown in the chart above, it promoted education, land reforms, and workers’ rights. Carranza did not support the final version of the constitution, however, and in 1920, he was overthrown by one of his generals, Alvaro Obregon.
“Pancho” Villa / Emiliano Zapata – Revolutionary leader from southern Mexico. Zapata came from a poor family. He was determined to see that land was returned to peasants and small farmers and wanted laws to protect their rights. “Tierra y Libertad” (Land Liberty) was his battle cry. Victories by Zapata’s and Villa’s armies against Diaz’s army led Diaz to step down in 1911. “Pancho” Villa - Angered by American involvement in Mexican government, Villa led an attack on Columbus, New Mexico in 1916, killing 18 Americans. 10, 000 U. S. soldiers were sent into Mexico to capture Villa, but were unable to capture Villa before the hunt was called off due to U. S. involvement in World War 1. Between 1910 and 1920, the Mexican Revolution caused great damage to the Mexican economy. Finally, a new constitution was enacted in 1017/. This constitution set up a government led by a president. It also created land reform policies, established limits on foreign investors, and set an agenda to help the workers. The revolution also led to an outpouring of patriotism throughout Mexico. National pride was evident, for example, as intellectuals and artists sought to capture what was unique about Mexico, with special emphasis on the past. In 1914, the president used the Mexican arrest of American sailors as an opportunity to help Carranza attain power. Wilson sent marines to occupy the Mexican port of Veracruz. The action caused Huerta’s government to collapse, and Carranza assumed the presidency. Huerta’s fall from power cheered many Mexicans and appeared to validate Wilson’s “moral diplomacy”. However, Wilson soon discovered that he faced more trouble in Mexico. The new Carranza government was slow in bringing about reforms, and rebels again rose up, this time under the leadership of Pancho Villa. For a while, Wilson courted Villa. After American support disappeared in 1916, Villa’s forced crossed into New Mexico and raided the town of Columbus, leaving 18 Americans dead. President Wilson responded by sending General John J. Pershing and more than 10, 000 troops on a “punitive expedition” to Mexico. Pershing’s forced chased Villa for several months but failed to capture the rebel leader. Wilson eventually withdrew American troops from Mexico in 1917, mostly because of his concerns about World War 1 raging in Europe. Not long afterward, the United States declared war on Germany, and Pershing was given command of the American Expeditionary Force in France.
Closure Question #3: The revision of Mexico’s constitution is considered revolutionary. Do you agree with this characterization? Why or Why not? 1. 2. 3. 4. Carranza began a revision of Mexico’s constitution. It was adopted in 1917. A revolutionary document, that constitution is still in effect today. It promoted education, land reforms, and workers’ rights. Carranza did not support the final version of the constitution, however, and in 1920, he was overthrown by one of his generals, Alvaro Obregon. Reforms of Mexican Constitution of 1917 Land: Breakup of large estates, restrictions on foreign ownership of land, government control of resources (oil). Religion: State takeover of land owned by the Church. Labor: Minimum wage for workers, right to strike, institution of labor unions. Social Issues: Equal pay for equal work, limited legal rights for women (spending money and bringing lawsuits). Although Alvaro Obregon seized power violently, he did not remain a dictator. Instead, he supported the reforms the constitution called for, particularly land reform. He also promoted public education. Mexican public schools taught a common language – Spanish –and stressed nationalism. In this way, his policies helped unite the various regions and peoples of the country. Nevertheless, Obregon was assassinated in 1928.
Closure Assignment #12 Answer the following questions based on what you have learned from Chapter 28, Section 4: 1. Why might Benito Juarez’s rise to power be considered surprising? 2. How did persistent inequality contribute to the failure of democracy in the young Latin American nations? (At least 1 sentence) 3. The revision of Mexico’s constitution is considered revolutionary. Do you agree with this characterization? Why or Why not?